Full text of "The Story Of Art"
CONTENTS
PREFACE I
introduction: On Art and Artists 5
1. strange beginnings: Prehistoric and Primitive Peoples; Ancient
America 19
2. art for eternity : Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete 33
3. the great awakening : Greece, Seventh to Fifth Century B.c. 49
4. the realm of beauty : Greece and the Greek World, Fourth Century
B.c. to First Century a.d. 67
5. world conquerors : Romans, Buddhists, Jews, and Christians, First
to Fourth Century a.d. 79
6. A parting of ways : Rome and Byzantium, Fifth to Thirteenth Century 91
7. looking eastwards: Islam, China, Second to Thirteenth Century 99
8. western art in the melting pot: Europe, Sixth to Eleventh
Century 109
9. the church militant: The Twelfth Century 119
10. the church triumphant: The Thirteenth Century 131
11. courtiers and burghers: The Fourteenth Century 149
12. the conquest of reality: The Early Fifteenth Century 161
13. tradition and innovation : The Later Fifteenth Century in Italy 177
14. tradition and innovation : The Fifteenth Century in the North 195
15. harmony attained : Tuscany and Rome, Early Sixteenth Century 209
16. light and colour : Venice and Northern Italy in the Early Sixteenth
Century 237
17. the new learning spreads: Germany and the Netherlands in the
Early Sixteenth Century 249
18. A crisis of art: Europe, Later Sixteenth Century 265
19. vision and visions: Catholic Europe, First Half of the Seventeenth
Century 287
Contents
vi
20. the mirror of nature : Holland in the Seventeenth Century 309
21. power and glory : Italy, Later Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 325
22. power and glory: France, Germany and Austria, Late Seventeenth
and Early Eighteenth Centuries 335
23. THE age of reason : England and France, Eighteenth Century 343
24. the break in tradition: England, America and France, Late
Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries 357
25. revolution in permanence: The Nineteenth Century 377
26. in SEARCH of new standards : The Late Nineteenth Century 403
27. experimental art : The Twentieth Century 419
A NOTE ON ART BOOKS 447
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 45I
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 459
PREFACE
T HIS book is intended for all who feel in need of some first orientation in a
strange and fascinating field. It wants to show the newcomer the lie of the
land without confusing him with details; it hopes to enable him to bring
some intelligible order into the wealth of names, periods and styles which crowd
the pages of more ambitious works, and so to equip him for consulting more
specialized books. In planning and writing it I thought first and foremost of readers
in their teens who had just discovered the world of art for themselves. But I have
never believed that books for young people should differ from books for adults
except for the fact that they must reckon with the most exacting class of critics,
critics who are quick to detect and resent any trace of pretentious jargon or bogus
sentiment. I know from experience that these are the vices which may render people
suspicious of all writings on art for the rest of their lives. I have striven sincerely to
avoid these pitfalls and to use plain language even at the risk of sounding casual or
unprofessional. Difficulties of thought, on the other hand, I have not avoided, and so
I hope that no reader will attribute my decision to get along with a minimum of the
art historian’s conventional terms to any desire on my part of ‘talking down’ to
him. For is it not rather those who misuse ‘scientific’ language, not to enlighten
but to impress the reader, who are ‘talking down’ to us — from the clouds ?
Apart from this decision to restrict the number of technical terms, I have tried,
in writing this book, to follow a number of more specific self-imposed rules, all of
which have made my own life as its author more difficult, but may make that of the
reader a little easier. The first of these rules was that I would not write about works
I could not show in the illustrations ; I did not want the text to degenerate into lists
of names which could mean little or nothing to those who do not know the works
in question, and would be superfluous for those who do. This rule at once limited
the choice of artists and works I could discuss, to the number of illustrations the book
would hold. It forced me to be doubly rigorous in my selection of what to mention
and what to exclude. This led to my second rule, which was to limit myself to real
works of art, and to cut out anything which might merely be interesting as a speci-
men of taste or fashion. This decision entailed a considerable sacrifice of literary
effects. Praise is so much duller than criticism, and the inclusion of some amusing
monstrosities might have offered some light relief. But the reader would have been
justified in asking why something I found objectionable should find a place in a
book devoted to art and not to non-art, particularly if this meant leaving out a true
masterpiece. Thus, while I do not claim that all the works illustrated represent the
highest standard of perfection, I did make an effort not to include anything which
I considered to be without a peculiar merit of its own.
2 Preface
The third rule also demanded a little self-denial. I vowed to resist any temptation
to be original in my selection, lest the well-known masterpieces be crowded out by
my own personal favourites. This book, after all, is not intended merely as an
anthology of beautiful things; it is meant for those who look for bearings in a
new field, and for them the familiar appearance of apparendy ‘hackneyed’ examples
may serve as welcome landmarks. Moreover, the most famous works are really often
the greatest by many standards, and if this book can help readers to look at them with
fresh eyes it may prove more useful than if it had neglected them for the sake of
less well-known masterpieces.
Even so, the number of famous works and masters I had to exclude is formidable
enough. I may as well confess that I have found no room for Hindu or Etruscan
art, or for masters of the rank of Quercia, Signorelli or Carpaccio, of Peter
Vischer, Brouwer, Terborch, Canaletto, Corot, and scores of others who happen
to interest me deeply. To include them would have doubled or trebled the length of
the book and would, I believe, have reduced its value as a first guide to art. One
more rule I have followed in this heart-breaking task of elimination. When in doubt
I have always preferred to discuss a work which I had seen in the original rather
than one I knew only from photographs. I should have liked to make this an abso-
lute rule, but I did not want the reader to be penalized by the accidents of travel
restrictions which have dogged the life of the art lover during the past fifteen years.
Moreover, it was my final rule not to have any absolute rules whatever, but to break
my own sometimes, leaving to the reader the fun of finding me out.
These, then, were the negative rules I adopted. My positive aims should be
apparent from the book itself. It tries to tell the old story of art once more in simple
language, and to enable the reader to see how it hangs together. It should help him
in his appreciation, not so much by rapturous descriptions, as by providing him
with some pointers as to the artist’s probable intentions. This method should at
least help to clear away the most frequent causes of misunderstanding and to fore-
stall a kind of criticism which misses the point of a work of art altogether. Beyond
this the book has a slightly more ambitious goal. It sets out to place the works it
discusses in their historical setting and thus to lead towards an understanding of the
master’s artistic aims. Each generation is at some point in revolt against the standards
of its fathers; each work of art derives its appeal to contemporaries not only from
what it does but also from what it leaves undone. When young Mozart arrived in
Paris he noticed — as he wrote to his father — that all the fashionable symphonies
there ended with a quick finale; so he decided to startle his audience with a slow
introduction to his last movement. This is a trivial example, but it shows the direc-
tion in which an historical appreciation of art must aim. The urge to be different may
not be the highest or profoundest element of the artist’s equipment, but it is rarely
lacking altogether. And the appreciation of this intentional difference often opens
Preface 3
up the easiest approach to the art of the past. I have tried to make this constant
change of aims the key of my narrative, and to show how each work is related by
imitation or contradiction to what has gone before. Even at the risk of being tedious,
I have referred back for the purpose of comparison to works that show the
distance which artists had placed between themselves and their forerunners. There
is one pitfall in this method of presentation which I hope to have avoided but
which should not go unmentioned. It is the naive misinterpretation of the constant
change in art as a continuous progress. It is true that every artist feels that he
has surpassed the generation before him and that from his point of view he has
made progress beyond anything that was known before. We cannot hope to under-
stand a work of art without being able to share this sense of liberation and triumph
which the artist felt when he looked at his own achievement. But we must realize
that each gain or progress in one direction entails a loss in another, and that this
subjective progress, in spite of its importance, does not correspond to an objective
increase in artistic values. All this may sound a little puzzling when stated in the
abstract. I hope the book will make it clear.
One more word about the space allotted to the various arts in this book. To
some it will seem that painting is unduly favoured as compared to sculpture and
architecture. One reason for this bias is that less is lost in the illustration of a
painting than in that of a round sculpture, let alone a monumental building. I had
no intention, moreover, of competing with the many excellent histories of archi-
tectural styles which exist. On the other hand, the story of art as here conceived
could not be told without a reference to the architectural background. While I had
to confine myself to discussing the style of only one or two buildings in each period,
I tried to restore the balance in favour of architecture by giving these examples
pride of place in each chapter. This may help the reader to co-ordinate his know-
ledge of each period and see it as a whole.
As a tailpiece to each chapter I have chosen a characteristic representation of the
artist’s life and world from the period concerned. Together with the frontispiece
of this book these pictures form an independent little series illustrating the changing
social position of the artist and his public. Even where their artistic merit is not
very high these pictorial documents may help us to build up, in our minds, a
concrete picture of the surroundings in which the art of the past sprang to life.
* * *
This book would never have been written without the warm-hearted encourage-
ment it received from Elizabeth Senior, whose untimely death in an air-raid on
London was such a loss to all who knew her. I am also indebted to Dr. Leopold
Ettlinger, Dr. Edith Hoffmann, Dr. Otto Kurz, Mrs. Olive Renier, Mrs. Edna
Sweetman, to my wife and my son Richard for much valuable advice and assistance,
and to the Phaidon Press for their share in shaping this book.
I. Rubens: Portrait of his son Nicholas. Drawn 2. durer: Portrait of his mother. Drawn
about 1620. Vienna, Albertina in 1514. Vienna, Albertina
3. murillo: Street arabs . Painted about 4. pieter de hooch: Interior with a woman peeling
1670. Munich, Alte Pinakothek apples . Painted in 1663. London, Wallace Collection
INTRODUCTION
On Art and Artists
T HERE really is no such thing as Art. There are only artists. Once these
were men who took coloured earth and roughed out the forms of a bison on
the wall of a cave; today they buy their paints, and design posters for the
Underground; they did many things in between. There is no harm in calling all
these activities art as long as we keep in mind that such a word may mean very
different things in different times and places, and as long as we realize that Art with
a capital A has no existence. For Art with a capital A has come to be something of a
bogey and a fetish. You may crush an artist by telling him that what he has just
done may be quite good in its own way, only it is not ‘Art’. And you may confound
anyone enjoying a picture by declaring that what he liked in it was not the Art but
something different.
Actually I do not think that there are any wrong reasons for liking a statue or a
picture. Someone may like a landscape painting because it reminds him of home,
or a portrait because it reminds him of a friend. There is nothing wrong with that.
All of us, when we see a painting, are bound to be reminded of a hundred-and-one
things which influence our likes and dislikes. As long as these memories help us to
enjoy what we see, we need not worry. It is only when some irrelevant memory
makes us prejudiced, when we instinctively turn away from a magnificent picture
of an alpine scene because we dislike climbing, that we should search our mind for
the reason of the aversion which spoils a pleasure we might otherwise have had.
There are wrong reasons for disliking a work of art.
Most people like to see in pictures what they would also like to see in reality. This
is quite a natural preference. We all like beauty in nature, and are grateful to the
artists who have preserved it in their works. Nor would these artists themselves
have rebuffed us for our taste. When the great Flemish painter Rubens made a
drawing of his little boy (Fig. i) he was proud of his good looks. He wanted us, too,
to admire the child. But this bias for the pretty and engaging subject is apt to
become a stumbling block if it leads us to reject works which represent a less appeal-
ing subject. The great German painter Albrecht Dvirer certainly drew his mother
(Fig. 2) with as much devotion and love as Rubens felt for his chubby child. His
truthful study of careworn old age may give us a shock which makes us turn away
from it — and yet, if we fight against our first repugnance we may be richly rewarded,
for Durer’s drawing in its tremendous sincerity is a great work. In fact, we shall
soon discover that the beauty of a picture does not really lie in the beauty of its
subject-matter. I do not know whether the little ragamuffins whom the Spanish
painter Murillo liked to paint (Fig. 3) were stricdy beautiful or not, but, as he
A**
6
Introduction
5. melozzo DA forli: Angel. Detail of a 6. mem ling: Angels . Detail of an altar,
fresco. Painted about 1480. Painted about 1490.
Vatican, Pinacoteca Antwerp, Museum
painted them, they certainly have great charm. On the other hand, most people
would call the child in Pieter de Hooch’s wonderful Dutch interior (Fig. 4) plain,
but it is an attractive picture all the same.
The trouble about beauty is that tastes and standards of what is beautiful vary
so much. Figs. 5 and 6 were both painted in the fifteenth century, and both repre-
sent angels playing the lute. Many will prefer the Italian work by Melozzo da Forli
(Fig. 5), with its appealing grace and charm, to that of his northern contemporary
Hans Memling (Fig. 6). I myself like both. It may take a little longer to discover the
intrinsic beauty of Memling’s angel, but once we are no longer disturbed by his
faint awkwardness we may find him infinitely lovable.
What is true of beauty is also true of expression. In fact, it is often the expression
of a figure in the painting which makes us like or loathe the work. Some people like
an expression which they can easily understand, and which therefore moves them
profoundly. When the Italian seventeenth-century painter Guido Reni painted the
head of Christ on the cross (Fig. 7), he intended, no doubt, that the beholder should
find in this face all the agony and all the glory of the Passion. Many people through-
out subsequent centuries have drawn strength and comfort from such a representation
of the Saviour. The feeling it expresses is so strong and so clear that copies of this
work can be found in simple chapels and far-away farmhouses where people know
nothing about ‘Art’. But even if this intense expression of feeling appeals to us we
should not, for that reason, turn away from works whose expression is perhaps less
easy to understand. The Italian painter of the Middle Ages who painted the crucifix
Introduction
7
Detail of a painting, about 1640. Detail of a crucifix. Painted about 1270.
London, National Gallery Florence, Uffizi
(Fig. 8) surely felt as sincerely about the Passion as did Reni, but we must first
learn his methods of drawing to understand his feelings. When we have come to
understand these different languages, we may even prefer works of art whose
expression is less obvious than Reni’s. Just as some prefer people who use few
words and gestures and leave something to be guessed, so some people are fond of
paintings or sculptures which leave them something to guess and ponder about. In
the more ‘primitive’ periods, when artists were not so skilled in representing human
faces and human gestures as they are now, it is often all the more moving to see how
they tried nevertheless to bring out the feeling they wanted to convey.
But here people are often brought up against another difficulty. They want to
admire the artist’s skill in representing the things they see. What they like best is
paintings which look ‘like real’. I do not deny for a moment that this is an important
consideration. The patience and skill which go into the faithful rendering of the
visible world are indeed to be admired. Great artists of the past have devoted much
labour to works in which every tiny detail is carefully recorded. Diirer’s water-
colour study of a hare (Fig. 9) is one of the most famous examples of this loving
patience. But who would say that Rembrandt’s drawing of an elephant (Fig. 10) is
necessarily less good because it shows fewer details ? Indeed Rembrandt was such
a wizard that he gave us the feel of the elephant’s wrinkly skin with a few lines
of his charcoal.
But it is not only sketchiness that offends people who like their pictures to look
. - I
9. durer: A Hare. Water-colour. Painted in 1502.
Vienna, Albertina
io. rembrandt: An Elephant . Drawn in 1637. Vienna, Albertina
Introduction
9
‘real’. They are even more repelled by works which they consider to be incorrectly
drawn, particularly when they belong to a more modern period when the artist
‘ought to have known better’. As a matter of fact, there is no mystery about these
distortions of nature about which we hear so many complaints in discussions on
modem art. Everyone who has ever seen a Disney film or a comic strip knows all
about it. He knows that it is sometimes right to draw things otherwise than they
look, to change and distort them in one way or another. Mickey Mouse does not
look very much like a real mouse, yet people do not write indignant letters to the
papers about the length of his tail. Those who enter Disney’s enchanted world are
not worried about Art with a capital A. They do not go to his shows armed with the
same prejudices they like to take with them when going to an exhibition of modem
painting. But if a modem artist draws something in his own way, he is apt to be
thought a bungler who can do no better. Now, whatever we may think of modem
artists, we may safely credit them with enough knowledge to draw ‘correctly’. If
they do not do so their reasons may be very similar to those of Mr. Disney. Fig. i x
shows a plate from an illustrated Natural History by the famous leader of the
modern movement, Picasso. Surely no one could find fault with his charming
representation of a mother hen and her fluffy litde chickens. But in drawing a
cockerel (Fig. 12), Picasso was not content with giving a mere rendering of the
bird’s appearance. He wanted to bring out its aggressiveness, its cheek and its
stupidity. In other words he has resorted to caricature. But what a convincing
caricature it is!
11. picasso: A Hen with chickens . Illustration 12. picasso: A Cockerel . Drawn in 1938.
to Buffon’s Natural History published in 1942 In the artist’s possession
io Introduction
There are two things, therefore, which we should always ask ourselves if we find
fault with the accuracy of a picture. One is whether the artist may not have had his
reasons for changing the appearance of what he saw. We shall hear more about such
reasons as the story of art unfolds. The other is that we should never condemn a
work for being incorrectly drawn unless we have made quite sure that we are right
and the painter is wrong. We are all inclined to be quick with the verdict that
'things do not look like that’. We have a curious habit of thinking that nature must
always look like the pictures we are accustomed to. It is easy to illustrate this by an
astonishing discovery which was made not very long ago. Thousands of people, for
centuries, have watched horses gallop, have attended horse-races and hunts, have
enjoyed paintings and sporting prints showing horses charging into battle or run-
ning after hounds. Not one of these people seems to have noticed what it ‘really
looks like’ when a horse runs. Pictures and sporting prints usually showed them with
outstretched legs in full flight through the air — as the great French nineteenth-
century painter Gericault painted them in a famous representation of the races at
Epsom (Fig. 13). About eighty years ago, when the photographic camera had been
sufficiently perfected for snapshots of horses in rapid motion to be taken, these
snapshots proved that both the painters and their public had been wrong all the
while. No galloping horse ever moved in the way which seems so ‘natural’ to us.
It draws its legs in in turn as they come off the ground (Fig. 14). If we reflect for
a moment we shall realize that it could hardly get along otherwise. And yet, when
painters began to apply this new discovery, and painted horses moving as they
actually do, everyone complained that their pictures looked wrong.
This, no doubt, is an extreme example, but similar errors are by no means as
rare as one might think. We are all inclined to accept conventional forms or colours
as the only correct ones. Children sometimes think that stars must be star-shaped,
though naturally they are not. The people who insist that in a picture the sky must
be blue, and the grass green, are not very different from these children. They get
very indignant if they see other colours in a picture, but if we try to forget all we
have heard about green grass and blue skies, and look at the world as if we had just
arrived from another planet on a voyage of discovery and were seeing it for the
first time, we may find that things are apt to have the most surprising colours.
Now painters sometimes feel as if they were on such a voyage of discovery. They
want to see the world afresh, and to discard all the accepted notions and prejudices
about flesh being pink and apples yellow or red. It is not easy to get rid of these
preconceived ideas, but the artists who succeed best in doing so often produce the
most exciting works. It is they who teach us to see new beauties in nature of whose
existence we had never dreamt. If we follow them and learn from them, even a
glance out of our own window may become a thrilling adventure.
There is no greater obstacle to the enjoyment of great works of art than our
c
13. gericault: Horse-racing at Epsom. Painted in 1820. Paris, Louvre.
14. The same subject, as the camera sees it, 1948. Photo finish
12 Introduction
unwillingness to discard habits and prejudices. A painting which represents a
familiar subject in an unexpected way is often condemned for no better reason than
that it does not seem right. The more often we have seen a story represented in art,
the more firmly do we become convinced that it must always be represented on
similar lines. About biblical subjects, in particular, feelings are apt to run high.
Though we all know that the Scriptures tell us nothing about the appearance of
Jesus, and that God Himself cannot be visualized in human form, and though we
know that it was the artists of the past who first created the images we have become
used to, many are still inclined to think that to depart from these traditional forms
amounts to blasphemy.
As a matter of fact, it was usually those artists who read the Scriptures with the
greatest devotion and attention who tried to build up in their minds an entirely fresh
picture of the incidents of the sacred story. They tried to forget all the pictures they
had seen, and to imagine what it must have been like when the Christ-child lay in
the manger and the shepherds came to adore Him, or when a fisherman began to
preach the gospel. It has happened time and again that such efforts of a great artist
to read the old text with entirely fresh eyes have shocked and outraged thoughtless
people. A typical ‘scandal’ of this kind flared up round Caravaggio, a very bold and
revolutionary Italian artist who worked round about 1600. He was given the
task of painting a picture of St. Matthew for the altar of a church in Rome. The
saint was to be represented writing the gospel, and, to show that the gospels were
the word of God, an angel was to be represented inspiring his writings. Caravaggio,
who was a very earnest and uncompromising young artist, thought hard about
what it must have been like when an elderly, poor, working man, a simple publican,
suddenly had to sit down to write a book. And so he painted a picture of St. Matthew
(Fig. 15) with a bald head and bare, dusty feet, awkwardly gripping the huge
volume, anxiously wrinkling his brow under the unaccustomed strain of writing.
By his side he painted a youthful angel, who seems just to have arrived from on
high, and who gently guides the labourer’s hand as a teacher may do to a child.
When Caravaggio delivered this picture to the church where it was to be placed on
the altar, people were scandalized at what they took to be lack of respect for the
Saint. The painting was not accepted, and Caravaggio had to try again. This time
he took no chances. He kept strictly to the conventional ideas of what an angel or
Saint should look like (Fig. 16). The outcome is still quite a good picture, for
Caravaggio had tried hard to make it look lively and interesting, but we feel that it
is less honest and sincere than the first had been.
This story illustrates the harm that may be done by those who dislike and criticize
works of art for wrong reasons. What is more important, it brings it home to us, that
what we call ‘works of art’ are not the results of some mysterious activity, but ob-
jects made by human beings for human beings. A picture looks so remote when it
Introduction
13
15. Caravaggio: St. Matthew. 16. Caravaggio: St. Matthew.
Rejected version. Painted about 1593. Accepted version. Painted about 1593.
Berlin, Kaiser-Friedrich Museum Rome, Church of S. Luigi dei Francesi
hangs glassed and framed on the wall. And in our museums it is — very properly —
forbidden to touch the objects on view. But originally they were made to be touched
and handled, they were bargained about, quarrelled about, worried about. Let us
also remember that every one of their features is the result of a decision by the artist:
that he may have pondered over them and changed them many times, that he may
have wondered whether to leave that tree in the background or to paint it over
again, that he may have been pleased by a lucky stroke of his brush which gave a
sudden unexpected brilliance to a sunlit cloud, and that he put in these figures
reluctantly at the insistence of a buyer. For most of the paintings and statues which
are now strung up along the walls of our museums and galleries were not meant to
be displayed as Art. They were made for a definite occasion and a definite purpose
which were in the artist’s mind when he set to work.
Those ideas, on the other hand, we outsiders usually worry about, ideas about
beauty and expression, are rarely mentioned by artists. It was not always like that,
but it was so for many centuries in the past, and it is so again now. The reason is
partly that artists are often shy people who would think it embarrassing to use big
words like ‘Beauty*. They would feel rather priggish if they were to speak about
‘expressing their emotions’ and to use similar catchwords. Such things they take for
14 Introduction
granted and find it useless to discuss. That is one reason, and, it seems, a good one.
But there is another. In the actual everyday worries of the artist these ideas play a
much smaller part than outsiders would, I think, suspect. What an artist worries
about as he plans his picture, makes his sketches, or wonders whether he has com-
pleted his canvas, is something much more difficult to put into words. Perhaps he
would say he worries about whether he has got it ‘right’. Now it is only when we
understand what he means by that modest little word ‘right* that we begin to
understand what artists are really after.
I think we can only hope to understand this if we draw on our own experience.
Of course we are no artists, we may never have tried to paint a picture and may have
no intention of ever doing so. But this need not mean that we are never confronted
with similar problems as those which make up the artist’s life. In fact, I am anxious
to prove that there is hardly any person who has not at least got an inkling of this
type of problem, be it in ever so modest a way. Anybody who has ever tried to
arrange a bunch of flowers, to shuffle and shift the colours, to add a little here and
take away there, has experienced this strange sensation of balancing forms and
colours without being able to tell exactly what kind of harmony it is he is trying to
achieve. We just feel a patch of red here may make all the difference, or this blue
is all right by itself but it does not ‘go’ with the others, and suddenly a little stem
of green leaves may seem to make it come ‘right’. ‘Don’t touch it any more,’ we
exclaim, ‘now it is perfect.’ Not everybody, I admit, is quite so careful over tne
arrangement of flowers, but nearly everybody has something he wants to get ‘right’.
It may just be a matter of finding the right belt which matches a certain dress or
nothing more impressive than the worry over the right proportion of, say, custard
and pudding on one’s plate. In every such case, however trivial, we may feel that a
shade too much or too little upsets the balance and that there is only one relation-
ship which is as it should be.
People who worry like this over flowers, dresses or food, we may call fussy,
because we may feel these things do not warrant so much attention. But what may
sometimes be a bad habit in real life and is often, therefore, suppressed or concealed,
comes into its own in the realm of art. When it is a matter of matching forms or
arranging colours an artist must always be ‘fussy’ or rather fastidious to the extreme.
He may see differences in shades and texture which we would hardly notice. More-
over, his task is infinitely more complex than any of those we may experience in
ordinary life. He has not only to balance two or three colours, shapes or tastes, but
to juggle with any number. He has, on his canvas, literally hundreds of shades and
forms which he must balance till they look ‘right’. A patch of green may suddenly
look too yellow because it was brought into too close proximity with a strong blue —
he may feel that all is spoiled, that there is a jarring note in the picture and that he
must begin it all over again. He may suffer agonies over this problem. He may
Introduction 15
ponder about it in sleepless nights; he may stand in front of his picture all day
trying to add a touch of colour here or there and rubbing it out again, though you
and I might not have noticed the difference either way. But once he has succeeded
we all feel that he has achieved something to which nothing could be added, some-
thing which is right — an example of perfection in our very imperfect world.
Take one of Raphael’s famous Madonnas: ‘The Virgin in the Meadow’, for
instance (Fig. 17). It is beautiful, no doubt, and engaging; the figures are admirably
drawn, and the expression of the Holy Virgin as she looks down on the two children
is quite unforgettable. But if we look at Raphael’s sketches for the picture (Fig. 18)
we begin to realize that these were not the things he took most trouble about. These
he took for granted. What he tried again and again to get was the right balance
between the figures, the right relationship which would make the most harmonious
whole. In the rapid sketch in the left-hand corner, he thought of letting the Christ-
child walk away looking back and up at His mother. And he tried different positions
of the mother’s head to answer the movement of the child. Then he decided to turn
the child round and to let it look up to her. He tried another way, this time intro-
ducing the little St. John — but, instead of letting the Christ-child look at him,
made him turn out of the picture. Then he made another attempt, and apparently
became impatient, trying the head of the child in many different positions. There
were several leaves of this kind in his sketch-book, in which he tried again and again
how best to balance these three figures. But if we now look back at the final picture
we see that he did get it right in the end. Everything in the picture seems in its
proper place, and the poise and harmony which Raphael has achieved by his hard
work seems so natural and effortless that we hardly notice it. Yet it is just this
harmony which makes the beauty of the Madonna more beautiful and the sweetness
of the children more sweet.
It is fascinating to watch an artist thus striving to achieve the right balance, but
if we were to ask him why he did this or changed that, he might not be able to tell
us. He does not follow any fixed rules. He just feels his way. It is true that some
artists or critics in certain periods have tried to formulate laws of their art; but it
always turned out that poor artists did not achieve anything when trying to apply
these laws, while great masters could break them and yet achieve a new kind of
harmony no one had thought of before. When the great English painter Sir Joshua
Reynolds explained to his students in the Royal Academy that blue should not be
put into the foreground of paintings but should be reserved for the distant back-
grounds, for the fading hills on the horizon, his rival Gainsborough — so the story
goes — wanted to prove that such academic rules are usually nonsense. He painted
the famous ‘Blue Boy’ whose blue dress, in the central foreground of the picture,
stands out triumphandy against the warm brown of the background.
The truth is that it is impossible to lay down rules of this kind because one can
17. Raphael: The Virgin in the Meadow. Painted in 1505.
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum
18. Raphael: Leaf from a sketch-book with four studies for ‘ The Virgin in the Meadow \ 1505.
Vienna, Albertina
Introduction 17
never know in advance what effect the artist may wish to achieve. He may even
want a shrill, jarring note if he happens to feel that that would be right. As there are
no rules to tell us when a picture or statue is right it is usually impossible to explain
in words exactly why we feel that it is a great work of art. But that does not mean
that one work is just as good as any other, or that one cannot discuss matters of taste.
If they do nothing else, such discussions make us look at pictures, and the more we
look at them the more we notice points which have escaped us before. We begin
to develop a feeling for the kind of harmony each generation of artists tried to
achieve. The greater our feeling for these harmonies the more we shall enjoy them,
and that, after all, is what matters. The old proverb that you cannot argue about
matters of taste may well be true, but that should not conceal the fact that taste can
be developed. This is again a matter of common experience which everybody can
test in a modest field. To people who are not used to drinking tea one blend may
taste exactly like the other. But, if they have the leisure, will and opportunity, to
search out such refinements as there may be, they may develop into true ‘con-
noisseurs’ who can distinguish exactly what type and mixture they prefer, and their
greater knowledge is bound to add greatly to their enjoyment of the choicest blends.
Admittedly, taste in art is something infinitely more complex than taste in food and
drink. It is not only a matter of discovering various subtle flavours; it is something
more serious and more important. After all, the great masters have given their all in
these works, they have suffered for them, sweated blood over them, and the least
they have a right to ask of us is that we try to understand what they wanted to do.
One never finishes learning about art. There are always new things to discover.
Great works of art seem to look different each time one stands beiore them. They
seem to be as inexhaustible and unpredictable as real human beings. It is an
exciting world of its own with its own strange laws and its own adventures. Nobody
should think he knows all about it, for nobody does. Nothing, perhaps, is more
important than just this : chat to enjoy these works we must have a fresh mind, one
which is ready to catch every hint and to respond to every hidden harmony : a mind,
most of all, not cluttered up with long high-sounding words and ready-made
phrases. It is infinitely better not to know anything about art than to have the kind
of halt-knowledge which makes for snobbishness. The danger is very real. There
are people, for instance, who have picked up the simple points I have tried to make
in this chapter, and who understand that there are great works of art which have
none of the obvious qualities of beauty or expression or correct draughtsmanship,
but who become so proud of their knowledge that they pretend to like only those
works which are neither beautiful nor correctly drawn. They are always haunted by
the fear that they might be considered uneducated if they confessed to liking a work
which seems too obviously' pleasant or moving. They end by being snobs who lose
their true enjoyment of art and who call everything ‘very interesting’ which they
1 8 Introduction
really find somewhat repulsive. I should hate to be responsible for any similar
misunderstanding. I would rather not be believed at all than be believed in such an
uncritical way.
In the chapters which follow I shall discuss the history of art, that is the history
of building, of picture-making and of statue-making. I think that knowing some-
thing of this history helps us to understand why artists worked in a particular way,
or why they aimed at certain effects. Most of all it is a good way of sharpening our
eyes for the particular characteristics of works of art, and of thereby increasing our
sensibility of the finer shades of difference. Perhaps it is the only way of learning to
enjoy them in their own right. But no way is without its dangers. One sometimes
sees people walking through a gallery, catalogue in hand. Every time they stop in
front of a picture they eagerly search for its number. We can watch them thumbing
their book, and as soon as they have found the title or the name they walk on. They
might just as well have stayed at home, for they have hardly looked at the painting.
They have only checked the catalogue. It is a kind of mental short circuit which
has nothing to do with enjoying a picture.
People who have acquired some knowledge of art history are sometimes in danger
of falling into a similar trap. When they see a work of art they do not stay to look
at it, but rather search their memory for the appropriate label. They may have
heard that Rembrandt was famous for his chiaroscuro — which is the Italian technical
term for light and shade — so they nod wisely when they see a Rembrandt, mumble
‘wonderful chiaroscuro’, and wander on to the next picture. I want to be quite
frank about this danger of half-knowledge and snobbery, for we are all apt to
succumb to such temptations, and a book like this could increase them. I should
like it to help to open eyes, not to loosen tongues. To talk cleverly about art is not
very difficult, because the words critics use have been employed in so many different
contexts that they have lost all precision. But to look at a picture with fresh eyes
and to venture on a voyage of discovery into it is a far more difficult but also a much
more rewarding task. There is no telling what one might bring home from such
a journey.
chapter i • STRANGE BEGINNINGS
Prehistoric and Primitive Peoples ; Ancient America
19 . The Cave of Lascaux in France with paintings round the ceiling made some 30,000 years ago
W E do not know how art began any more than we know how language
started. If we take art to mean such activities as building temples and
houses, making pictures and sculptures, or weaving patterns, there is
no people in all the world without art. If, on the other hand, we mean by art some
kind of beautiful luxury, something to enjoy in museums and exhibitions or some-
thing special to use as a precious decoration in the best parlour, we must realize that
this use of the word is a very recent development and that many of the greatest
builders, painters or sculptors of the past never dreamed of it. We can best under-
stand this difference if we think of architecture. We all know that there are beautiful
buildings and that some of them are true works of art. But there is scarcely any
building in the world which was not erected for a particular purpose. Those who
use these buildings as places of worship or entertainment, or as dwellings, judge
them first and foremost by standards of utility. But apart from this, they may like
or dislike the design or the proportion of the structure, and appreciate the efforts
of the good architect to make it not only practical but ‘right’. In the past the attitude
to paintings and statues was often similar. They were not thought of as mere
20 Strange Beginnings
works of art but as objects which had a definite function. He would be a poor judge
of houses who did not know the requirements for which they were built. Similarly,
we are not likely to understand the art of the past if we are quite ignorant of the aims
it had to serve. The further we go back in history, the more definite but also the
more strange are the aims which art was supposed to serve. The same applies if we
leave towns and cities and go to the peasants or, better still, if we leave our civilized
countries and travel to the peoples whose ways of life still resemble the conditions
in which our remote ancestors lived. We call these people ‘primitives’ not because
they are simpler than we are — their processes of thought are often more complicated
than ours — but because they are closer to the state from which all mankind once
emerged. Among these primitives, there is no difference between building and
image-making as far as usefulness is concerned. Their huts are there to shelter them
from rain, wind and sunshine and the spirits which produce them; images are made
to protect them against other powers which are, to them, as real as the forces of
nature. Pictures and statues, in other words, are used to work magic.
We cannot hope to understand these strange beginnings of art unless we try to
enter into the mind of the primitive peoples and fi nd out what kind of experience
it is which makes them think of pictures, not as something nice to look at, but as
something powerful to use. I do not think it is really so difficult to recapture this
feeling. All that is needed is the will to be absolutely honest with ourselves and see
whether we, too, do not retain something of the ‘primitive’ in us. Instead of
beginning with the Ice Age, let us begin with ourselves. Suppose we take a picture
of our favourite cricketer or film star from today’s paper — would we enjoy taking a
needle and poking out the eyes ? Would we feel as indifferent about it as if we poked
a hole anywhere else in the paper ? I do not think so. However well I know with my
waking thoughts that what I do to his picture makes no difference to my friend or
hero, I still feel a vague reluctance to harm it. Somewhere there remains the absurd
feeling that what one does to the picture is done to the person it represents. Now,
if I am right there, if this queer and unreasonable idea really survives, even among
us, into the age of atom bombs and radios, it is perhaps less surprising that such ideas
existed almost everywhere among the so-called primitive peoples. In all parts of the
world medicine men or witches have tried to work magic in some such way — they
have made little images of an enemy and have then pierced the heart of the wretched
doll, or burnt it, and hoped that their enemy would suffer. Even the guy we burn
on Guy Fawkes Day is a remnant of such a superstition. Negroes in Africa are
sometimes as vague as little children about what is a picture and what is real. On
one occasion, when a European artist made drawings of their cattle, the natives
were distressed: ‘If you take them away with you, what are we to live on ?’
All these strange ideas are important because they may help us to understand the
oldest paintings which have come down to us. These paintings are as old as any
Animals painted some 15,000 years ago:
20. Bison , found in the cave of Altamira (Spain)
21. Reindeer, found in the cave of Font de Gaume (France)
22. Ritual Mask from Alaska , representing a man-eating mountain demon with blood-stained face.
Berlin, Museum fur Vdlkerkunde
Strange Beginnings 23
trace of human skill. They date from the Ice Age or thereabouts, when our
ancestors, sheltered in caves, hunted huge game and knew only the rudest of
stone implements. And yet, on the Walls and ceilings of such caves, particularly in
Spain and southern France, paintings have been discovered, mainly of these
animals, reindeer, bison and wild horses (Figs. 19, 20, 21). Most of these paintings
are astonishingly vivid and lifelike, much more so than we might have expected.
But it is very unlikely that they were made for the purpose of decorating the walls
of these dark caves. In the first place, they are often found deep inside the mountain,
far away from the places where man lived. Secondly, they are often put there
higgledy-piggledy, one on top of the other, without any apparent order or design. It
is much more likely that these are the oldest relics of that universal belief in the
power of picture-making; in other words, that these primitive hunters thought that
if they only made a picture of their prey — and perhaps belaboured it with their
spears or stone axes — the real animals would also succumb to their power.
Of course, this is guesswork — but guesswork pretty well supported by the use
of art among those primitive peoples of our own day who have still preserved their
ancient customs. True, we do not find any now, as far as I know, who try to work
exactly this kind of magic; but most art for them is also closely bound up with
similar ideas about the power of images. There are still primitive peoples who use
nothing but stone implements and who scratch pictures of animals on rocks for
magic purposes. There are other tribes who have regular festivals when they dress
up as animals and move like animals in solemn dances. They, too, believe that
somehow this will give them power over their prey. Sometimes they even believe
that certain animals are related to them in some fairy-tale manner, and that the
whole tribe is a wolf tribe, a raven tribe or a frog tribe. It sounds strange enough, but
we must not forget that even these ideas are not as far removed from our own times
as one might think. The Romans believed that Romulus and Remus had been suckled
by a she-wolf, and they had an image in bronze of the she-wolf on the sacred Capitol
in Rome. Even up to our own times, under Mussolini, they always had a living
she-wolf in a cage near the steps to the Capitol. No living lions are kept on Trafalgar
Square — but the British Lion still leads a vigorous life in the pages of Punch .
Of course, there remains a vast difference between this kind of heraldry and
cartoon symbolism and the deep seriousness with which savages look on their
relationship with the totem, as they call their animal relatives. For it seems that
they sometimes live in a kind of dream-world in which they can be man and animal
at the same time. Many tribes have special ceremonies in which they wear masks
with the features of these animals, and when they put them on they seem to feel
that they are transformed, that they have become ravens^ or bears. It is very much
as if children played at pirates or detectives till they no longer knew where play-
acting ended and reality began. But with children there is always the grown-up
B
24 Strange Beginnings
world about them, the people who tell them ‘Don’t be so noisy’, or ‘It is nearly
bed-time’. For the savage there is no such other world to spoil the illusion, because
all the members of the tribe take part in the ceremonial dances and rites with their
fantastic games of p retence. They have all learned their significance from former
generations and are so absorbed in them that they have little chance of stepping
outside it and seeing their behaviour critically. We all have beliefs which we take
as much for granted as the ‘primitives’ take theirs — usually so much so that we are
not even aware of them unless we meet people who question them.
All this may seem to have little to do with art, but in fact these conditions
influence art in many ways. Many of the artists’ works are meant to play a part in
these strange customs, and what matters then is not whether the sculpture or
painting is beautiful by our standards, but whether it ‘works’, that is to say whether
it can perform the required magic. Moreover, the artists work for people of their
own tribe who know exactly what each form or each colour is meant to signify. They
are not expected to change these things, but only to apply all their skill and
knowledge to the execution of their work.
Again we have not to go far to think of parallels. The point of a national flag
is not to be a beautifully coloured piece of cloth which any maker can change
according to his fancy — the point of a wedding ring is not to be an ornament which
can be worn or changed as we think fit. Yet, even within the prescribed rites and
customs of our lives, there remains a certain element of choice and scope for taste
and skill. Let us think of the Christmas tree. Its principal features are laid down by
custom. Each family, in fact, has its own traditions and its own predilections with-
out which the tree does not look right. Nevertheless, when the great moment comes
to decorate the tree there remains much to be decided. Should this branch get a
candle ? Is there enough tinsel on top ? Does not this star look too heavy or this side
too overloaded ? Perhaps to an outsider the whole performance would look rather
strange. He might think that trees are much nicer without tinsel. But to us, who
know the significance, it becomes a matter of great importance to decorate the
tree according to our idea.
Primitive art works on just such pre-established lines, and yet leaves the artist
scope to show his mettle. The technical mastery of some native craftsmen is
indeed astonishing. We should never forget, when talking of primitive art, that the
word does not imply that the artists have only a primitive knowledge of their craft.
On the contrary; many native tribes have developed a truly amazing skill in carving,
in basket work, in the preparation of leather, or even in the working of metals. If we
realize with what simple tools these works are made we can only marvel at the
patience and sureness of touch which these primitive craftsmen have acquired
through centuries of specialization. The Maoris of New Zealand, for instance, have
learned to work veritable wonders in their wood-carvings (Fig. 23). Of course, the
Strange Beginnings
25
23. Carved wooden lintel from a Maori chieftain's house. London, British Museum
fact that a thing was difficult to make does not necessarily prove that it is a work of
art. If it were so, the men who make models of sailing ships in glass bottles would
rank among the greatest artists. ''But this proof of native skill should warn us against
the belief that their work looks odd because they cannot do it any better. It is not
their standard of craftsmanship which is different from ours, but their ideas/ It is
important to realize this from the outset, because the whole story of art is not a
story of progress in technical proficiency, but a story of changing ideas and require-
ments. There is increasing evidence that under certain conditions native artists can
produce work which is just as correct in the rendering of nature as the best work
done in any art class. Only recently a number of bronze heads have been discovered
in Nigeria which are the most convincing likenesses of negroes that can be ima-
gined (Fig. 24). They seem to be many centuries old, and there is no reason to
believe that the native artists learned their skill from anyone outside.
What, then, can be the reason for so much of primitive art looking utterly
strange ? Perhaps we should return to ourselves and the experiments we can all
perform. Let us take a piece of paper or ink-blotter and scrawl on it any doodle of a
face. Just a circle for the head, a stroke for the nose, another for the mouth. Then
look at the eyeless doodle. Does it not look unbearably sad ? The poor creature
cannot see. We feel we must ‘give it eyes’ — and what a relief it is when we make the
two dots and at last it can look at us ! To us all this is a joke, but to the native it
is not. A wooden pole with these few essential forms is to him new and different.
He takes the impression it makes as a token of its magic power. There is no need
to make it any more lifelike provided it has eyes to see. Fig 25 shows the figure
of a Polynesian ‘God of War’ called Oro. The Polynesians are excellent carvers, but
they obviously did not find it essential to make this a correct representation of a
man. All we see is a piece of wood covered with woven fibre. Only its eyes and arms
24. Bronze head of a negro. Excavated in Nigeria, 25. Oro , God of War, from Tahiti.
probably some 400 years old. Wood covered with sinnet.
London, British Museum London, British Museum
Strange Beginnings
27
are roughly indicated by this
fibre braid, but once we notice
them, this is enough to give
the pole a look of uncanny
power. We are still not quite in
the realm of art, but our doodle
experiment may teach us some-
thing more. Let us vary the
shape of our scribbled face in
all possible ways. Let us change
the shape of the eyes from dots
to crosses or any other form
which has not the remotest
resemblance to real eyes. Let us
make the nose a circle and the
mouth a scroll. It will hardly
matter, as long as their relative
position remains roughly the
same. Now to the native artist
this discovery probably meant
much. For it taught him to
build up his figures or faces
out of those forms which he
liked best and which were most
suited to his particular craft.
The result might not be very
lifelike, but it would retain a
certain unity and harmony of
pattern which is just what our
first doodle probably lacked.
Fig. 26 shows a mask from New
Guinea. It may not be a thing
of beauty, but it is not meant
to be — it is intended for a
ceremony in which the young
men of the village dress up as
ghosts and frighten the women
and children. But, however
26. A ritual mask from New Guinea , Elema District,
Worn by members of a secret society.
London, British Museum
28
Strange Beginnings
27. A Haida ( Red Indian) chieftain's house . After a model in the
American Museum of Natural History, New York
fantastic or repulsive this ‘ghost’ may look to us, there is something satisfying in
the way the artist has built up his face out of geometrical shapes.
In some parts of the world primitive artists have developed elaborate systems to
represent the various figures and totems of their myths in ornamental fashion.
Among the Red Indians of North America, for instance, artists combine a very acute
observation of natural forms with this disregard for what we called the real appears
ance of things (Fig. 22). As hunters, they know the true shape of the eagle’s beak,)
Strange Beginnings 29
or the beaver’s ears, much better than any of us. But they regard one such feature
as quite sufficient. A mask with an eagle’s beak just is an eagle. Fig 27 is a model
of a chieftain’s house among the Haida tribe of Red Indians with three so-called
totem poles in front of it. We may see only a jumble of ugly masks, but to the native
this pole illustrates an old legend of his tribe. To us the legend itself is nearly as odd
and incoherent as its representation, but we ought no longer to feel surprised that
native ideas differ from ours. Here it is:
Once there was a young man in the town of Gwais Kun who used to laze about on his
bed the whole day till his mother-in-law remarked on it ; he felt ashamed, went away and
decided to slay a monster which lived in a lake and fed on humans and whales. With the
help of a fairy bird he made a trap of a tree trunk and dangled two children over it as bait.
The monster was caught, the young man dressed in its skin and caught fishes which he
regularly left on his critical mother-in-law’s doorstep. She was so flattered at these
unexpected offerings that she thought of herself as a powerful witch. When the ' young
man undeceived her at last, she felt so ashamed that she died.
All the participants in this tragedy are represented on the central pole. The mask
below the entrance is one of the whales the monster used to eat. The big mask above
the entrance is the monster ; on top of it the human form of the unfortunate mother-
in-law. The mask with the beak over her is the bird who helped the hero, he himself
is seen further up dressed in the monster’s skin, with fishes he has caught. The
human figures at the end are the children the hero used as bait.
To us such a work may seem the product of an odd whim, but to those who
made such things this was a solemn undertaking. It took years to cut these huge
poles with the primitive tools at the disposal of the natives, and sometimes the
whole male population of the village helped in the task. It was to mark and honour
the house of a powerful chieftain.
Without explanation we may not be able to see the point of these works on which
so much love and labour were spent. It is frequently so with works of primitive art,
but even where the explanation is lacking, we can appreciate the weird thorough-
ness with which the shapes of nature are transformed into a consistent pattern.
For there are many great works of this kind dating from the strange beg in n in gs of
art whose exact explanation is probably lost for ever but which we can still admire.
All that remains to us of the great civilizations of ancient America is their ‘art’.
I have put the word in quotes not because these mysterious buildings and images
lack beauty — some of them are quite fascinating — but because we should not
approach them with the idea that they were made for the sake of pleasure or
‘decoration’. The terrifying carving of a death head from an altar of the r uins of
Copan in present Honduras (Fig. 28) reminds us of the gruesome human sacrifices
which were demanded by the religions of these peoples. However little may be
known about the exact meaning of such carvings, the thrilling efforts of the scholars
3° Strange Beginnings
f
2S. Head of the Death-god. From a Maya altar. Copan, Honduras, probably dating from A.D. 504.
After the cast in the British Museum
who have rediscovered these works and have tried to get at their secrets have
taught us enough to compare them with other works of primitive cultures. Of
course, these peoples were not primitive in the usual sense of the word. When the
Spanish and Portuguese conquerors of the sixteenth century arrived, the Aztecs
in Mexico and the Incas in Peru ruled over mighty empires. We also know
that in earlier centuries the Mayas of Central America had built big cities and
r developed a system of writing and of
29. The Aztec Rain-god Tlaloc , dating from before
the conquest. Berlin, Museum fur Vdlkerkunde
calculating calendars which is anything
but primitive. Like the negroes of
Nigeria the pre-Columbian Americans
were perfectly capable of representing
the human face in a lifelike manner.
The ancient Peruvians liked to shape
certain vessels in the form of human
heads which are strikingly true to
nature (Fig. 30). If most works of these
civilizations look weird and unnatural
to us, the reason lies probably in the
ideas they are meant to convey.
Fig. 29 represents a statue from
Mexico which is believed to date from
the Aztec period, the last in Mexican
history. Scholars think that it repre-
sents the rain-god, whose name was
Tlaloc. In these tropical zones rain
is often a question of life or death
for the people, for without rain their
30. Clay vessel in form of head of one-eyed man . Excavated in the valley of Chiama, Peru.
About a.d. 500. London, British Museum (Gaffron Collection)
32 Strange Beginnings
crops may fail and they may have to starve. No wonder that the god of rains and
thunderstorms assumes in their minds the shape of a terrifyingly powerful demon.
The lightning in the sky appears to their imagination like a big serpent, and many
American peoples therefore considered the rattlesnake to be a sacred and mighty
being. If we look more closely at the figure of Tlaloc we see, in fact, that his mouth is
formed of two heads of rattlesnakes facing each other with their big poisonous fangs
protruding from their jaws and that his nose, too, seems to be formed out of the
twisted bodies of the snake. Perhaps even his eyes might be seen as coiled serpents.
We see how far the idea of ‘building up* a face out of given forms can lead away
from our ideas of lifelike sculpture. We also get an inkling of the reasons which may
sometimes have led to this method. It was certainly fitting to form the image of the
rain-god out of the body of the sacred snakes which embodied the power of light-
ning. If we ponder the strange mentality which created these uncanny idols we may
begin to understand how image-making in these early civilizations was not only
connected with magic and religion but was also the first form of writing. The sacred
serpent in ancient Mexican art was not only the picture of a rattlesnake but could
also develop into a sign for lightning and so into a character by which a thunder-
storm could be commemorated or, perhaps, conjured up. We know very litde about
these mysterious origins, but if we want to understand the story of art we may do
well to remember once in a while that pictures and letters are really blood-relations.
31 . Australian native , drawing a totemic
Opossum pattern on a rock .
CHAPTER 2 ART FOR ETERNITY
Egypt j Mesopotamia:, Crete
32. The Great Pyramid of Gizeh. Built about 2700 B.c.
S OME form of art exists everywhere on the globe, but the story of art as a
continuous effort does not begin in the caves of southern France or among
the North American Indians. There is no direct tradition which links these
strange beginnings with our own days, but there is a direct tradition, handed down
from master to pupil, and from pupil to admirer or copyist, which links the art of
our own days, any house or any poster, with the art of the Nile Valley of some five
thousand years ago. For we shall see that the Greek masters went to school with the
Egyptians, and we are all the pupils of the Greeks. Thus the art of Egypt has a
tremendous importance for us.
Everyone knows that Egypt is the land of the pyramids, those mountains of stone
which stand like weathered landmarks on the distant horizon of history. However
remote and mysterious they seem, they tell us much of their own story. They tell
us of a land which was so thoroughly organized that it was possible to pile up these
gigantic mounds of stone in the lifetime of a single king, and they tell us of kings
who were so rich and powerful that they could force thousands and thousands of
34 Art for Eternity
workers or slaves to toil for them year in, year out, to quarry the stones, to drag
them to the building site, and to shift them with the most primitive means till the
tomb was ready to receive the king. No king and no people would have gone to such
expense, and taken so much trouble, for the creation of a mere monument. In fact,
we know that the pyramids had their practical importance in the eyes of the kings
and their subjects. The king was considered a divine being who held sway over
them, and on his departure from this earth he would again ascend to the gods whence
he had come. The pyramids soaring up to the sky would probably help him to make
his ascent. In any case they would preserve his sacred body from decay. For the
Egyptians believed that the body must be preserved if the soul is to live on in the
beyond. That is why they prevented the corpse from decaying by an elaborate
method of embalming it, and binding it up in strips of cloth. It was for the mummy
of the king that the pyramid had been piled up, and his body was laid right in the
centre of the huge mountain of stone in a stone coffin. Everywhere round the burial
chamber, spells and incantations were written to help him on his journey to the
other world.
But it is not only these oldest relics of human architecture which tell of the role
played by age-old beliefs in the story of art. The Egyptians held the belief that the
preservation of the body was not enough. If the likeness of the king was also pre-
served, it was doubly sure that he would continue to exist for ever. So they ordered
sculptors to chisel the king’s portrait out of hard, imperishable granite, and put it
in the tomb where no one saw it, there to work its spell and to help his soul to keep
alive in and through the image. One Egyptian word for sculptor was actually
‘He-who-keeps-alive’.
At first these rites were reserved for kings, but soon the nobles of the royal house-
hold had their minor tombs grouped in neat rows round the king’s mound; and
gradually every self-respecting person had to make provision for his after-life by
ordering a costly grave, where his soul could dwell and receive the offerings of food
and drink which were given to the dead, and which would house his mummy and
his likeness. Some of these early portraits from the pyramid age, the fourth ‘dynasty’
of the ‘Old Kingdom’, are among the most beautiful works of Egyptian art (Fig. 37).
There is a solemnity and simplicity about them which one does not easily forget.
One sees that the sculptor was not trying to flatter his sitter, or to preserve a jolly
moment in his life. He was concerned only with the essentials. Every lesser detail he
left out. Perhaps it is just because of this strict concentration on the basic forms of
the human head that these portraits remain so impressive. For, despite their almost
geometrical rigidity, they are not primitive as are the native masks discussed in
Chapter 1. Nor are they as lifelike as the naturalistic portraits of the artists of
Nigeria. The observation of nature, and the regularity of the whole, are so evenly
balanced that they impress us as being lifelike and yet remote and enduring.
Art for Eternity
35
33. Painting of a Pond. From a tomb in Thebes. About 1400 b.c. London, British Museum
This combination of geometrical regularity and keen observation of nature is
characteristic of all Egyptian art. We can study it best in the reliefs and paintings
that adorned the walls of the tombs. The word ‘adorned’, it is true, may hardly
fit an art which was meant to be seen by no one but the dead man’s soul. In fact,
these works were not intended to be enjoyed. They, too, were meant to ‘keep alive’.
Once, in a grim distant past, it had been the custom when a powerful man died to
let his servants and slaves accompany him into the grave so that he should arrive in
the beyond with a suitable suite. They were sacrificed. Later, these horrors were
considered either too cruel or too costly, and art came to the rescue. Instead of real
servants, the great ones of this earth were given images as substitutes. The pictures
and models found in Egyptian tombs were connected with the idea of providing
the souls with helpmates in the other world.
To us these reliefs and wall-paintings provide an extraordinarily vivid picture
of life as it was lived in Egypt thousands of years ago. And yet, looking at them for
the first time, one may find them rather bewildering. The reason is that the
36 Art for Eternity
Egyptian painters had quite a different way of representing real life from our way.
Perhaps this is connected with the different purpose their paintings had to serve.
What mattered most was not prettiness but completeness. It was the artists* task
to preserve everything as clearly and permanently as possible. So they did not set
out to sketch nature as it appeared to them from any fortuitous angle. They drew
from memory, according to strict rules which ensured that everything that had to
go into the picture would stand out in perfect clarity. Their method, in fact,
resembled that of the map-maker rather than that of the painter. Fig. 33 shows it in
a simple example, representing a garden with a pond. If we had to draw such
a motif we might wonder from which angle to approach it. The shape and character
of the trees could be seen clearly only from the sides, the form of the pond would
be visible only if seen from above. The Egyptians had no compunction about
this problem. They would simply draw the pond as if it were seen from above,
and the trees from the side. The fishes and birds in the pond, on the other hand,
would hardly look recognizable as seen from above, so they were drawn in profile.
In such a simple picture we can easily understand the artist’s procedure. There
are many children’s drawings which apply a similar principle. But the Egyptians
were much more consistent in their application of these methods than children ever
are. Everything had to be represented from its most characteristic angle. Fig. 34
shows the effect which this idea had on the representation of the human body. The
head was most easily seen in profile so they drew it sideways. But if we think of the
human eye we think of it as seen from the front. Accordingly, a full-face eye was
planted into the side view of the face. The top half of the body, the shoulders and
chest, are best seen from the front, for then we see how the arms are hinged to the
body. But arms and feet in movement are much more clearly seen sideways. That is
the reason why Egyptians in these pictures look so strangely flat and contorted.
Moreover the Egyptian artists found it hard to visualize either foot seen from the
outside. They preferred the clear outline from the big toe upwards. So both feet are
seen from the inside, and the man on the relief looks as if he had two left feet.
It must not be supposed that Egyptian artists thought that human beings looked
like that. They merely followed a rule which allowed them to include everything in
the human form that they considered important. Perhaps, as I have said, this strict
adherence to the rule had something to do with their magic purpose. For how could a
man with his arm ‘foreshortened’ or ‘cut off’ bring or receive the required offerings
to the dead ?
The point is that Egyptian art is not based on what the artist could see at a given
moment, but rather on what he knew belonged to a person or a scene. It was out
of these forms which he had learned, and which he knew, that he built his repre-
sentations, much as the primitive artist built his figures out of the forms he could
master. It is not only his knowledge of forms and shapes that the artist embodies
38
Art for Eternity
35. A Wall from the tomb of Chnemhotep near Beni Hassan. About 1900 B.c.
in his picture, but also his knowledge of their significance. We sometimes call a man
a ‘big boss’. The Egyptian drew the boss bigger than his servants or even his wife.
When we understand these rules and conventions, we understand the langua ge of
the pictures in which life of the Egyptians is chronicled. Fig. 35 gives a good idea
of the general arrangement of a wall in the tomb of a high Egyptian dignitary of the
so-called ‘Middle Kingdom’, some nineteen hundred years before our era. The
inscriptions in hieroglyphs tells us exactly who he was, and what titles and honours
he had collected in his lifetime. His name, we read, was Chnemhotep, the Admini-
strator of the Eastern Desert, Prince of Menat Chufu, Confidential friend of the
King, Royal Acquaintance, Superintendent of the Priests, Priest of Horus, Priest
of Anubis, Chief of all the Divine Secrets, and — most impressive of all — Master of
all the Tunics. On the left side we see him hunting wild-fowl with a kind of boomer-
ang, accompanied by his wife Cheti, his concubine Jat, and one of his sons who,
despite his tiny size in the picture, held the title of Superintendent of the Frontiers.
Below, in the frieze, we see fishermen under their superintendent Mentuhotep
hauling in a big catch. On top of the door Chnemhotep is seen again., this time
trapping waterfowl in a net. As we understand the methods of the Egyptian artist,
we can easily see how this device worked. The trapper sat hidden behind a screen
of reed, holding a cord which was linked with the open net (seen from above).
When the birds had settled down on the bait, he pulled the rope and the net closed
36. Birds in a bush. Detail of Fig. 35
37 . Portrait head of limestone, found in a tomb at Gizeh, made about 2700 b.c.
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum
Art for Eternity 41
over them. Behind Chnemhotep is his eldest son Nacht, and his Superintendent
of the Treasures, who was also responsible for the ordering of the tomb. On the
right side, Chnemhotep, who is called ‘great in fish, rich in wild-fowl, loving
the goddess of the chase’, is seen spearing fish. Once more we can observe the
conventions of the Egyptian artist who lets the water rise among the reeds to show
us the clearing with the fish. The inscription says: ‘Canoeing in the papyrus beds,
the pools of wild-fowl, the marshes and the streams, spearing with the two-pronged
spear, he transfixes thirty fish; how delightful is the day of hunting the hippo-
potamus’. Below is an amusing episode with one of the men who had fallen
into the water being fished out by his mates. The inscription round the door
records the days on which offerings are to be given to the dead, and includes prayers
to the gods.
I think when we have become accustomed to looking at these Egyptian pictures
we are as little troubled by their unrealities as we are by the absence of colour in a
photograph. We even begin to realize the great advantages of the Egyptian method.
Nothing in these pictures gives the impression of being haphazard, nothing looks
as if it could just as well be somewhere else. It is worth while taking a pencil and
trying to copy one of these ‘primitive’ Egyptian drawings. Our attempts always
look clumsy, lopsided and crooked. At least my own do. For the Egyptian sense of
order in every detail is so strong that any little variation seems to upset it entirely.
The Egyptian artist began his work by drawing a network of straight lines on the
wall, and he distributed his figures with great care along these lines. And yet all this
geometrical sense of order did not prevent him from observing the details of nature
with amazing accuracy. Every bird or fish or butterfly is drawn with such truthful-
ness that zoologists can still recognize the species. Fig. 36 shows such a detail of
Fig* 35 — the birds in the tree by Chnemhotep’s fowling net. Here it was not only
his great knowledge which guided the artist, but also an eye for colour and outline.
It is one of the greatest things in Egyptian art that all the statues, paintings and
architectural forms seem to fall into place as if they obeyed one law. We call such
a law, which all creations of a people seem to obey, a ‘style’. It is very difficult to
explain in words what makes a style, but it is far less difficult to see. The rules
which govern all Egyptian art give every individual work the effect of poise and
austere harmony.
The Egyptian style was a set of very strict laws which every artist had to learn
from his earliest youth. Seated statues had to have their hands on their knees; men
had to be painted with darker skin than women; the appearance of every Egyptian
god was strictly laid down : Horns, the sun-god, had to be shown as a falcon or with a
falcon’s head, Anubis, the god of death, as a jackal or with a jackal’s head. Every
artist also had to learn the art of beautiful script. He had to cut the images and sym-
bols of the hieroglyphs clearly and accurately in stone. But once he had mastered
42 Art for Eternity
all these rules he had finished his apprenticeship. No one wanted anything different,
no one asked him to be ‘original’. On the contrary, he was probably considered the
best artist who could make his statues most like the admired monuments of the past.
So it happened that in the course of three thousand years or more Egyptian art
changed very little. Everything that was considered good and beautiful in the times
of the pyramids was held to be just as excellent a thousand years later. True, new
fashions appeared, and new subjects were demanded of the artists, but their mode of
representing man and nature remained essentially the same.
Only one man ever shook the iron bars of the Egyptian style. He was a king of the
Eighteenth Dynasty, at the time known as the ‘New Kingdom’ which was founded
after a catastrophic invasion of Egypt. This king, called Amenophis IV, was a
heretic. He broke with many of the customs hallowed by an age-old tradition. He
did not wish to pay homage to the many strangely shaped gods of his people. For
him only one god was supreme, Aton, whom he worshipped and whom he had
represented in the shape of the sun. He called himself Akhnaton, after his god, and
he moved his court out of reach of the priests of the other gods, to a place which is
now called El-Amarna.
The pictures which he commissioned must have shocked the Egyptians of his
day by their novelty. In them none of the solemn and rigid dignity of the earlier
Pharaohs was to be found. Instead, he had himself depicted lifting his daughter on
to his knee, walking with his wife in the garden, leaning on his stick. Some of his
portraits show him as an ugly man (Fig. 38) — perhaps he wanted the artists to
portray him in all his human frailty. Ahknaton’s successor was Tutankhamen, whose
tomb with its treasures was discovered in 1923. Some of these works are still in
the modern style of the Aton religion — particularly the back of the king’s throne
(Fig. 39), which shows the king and queen in a homely idyll. He is sitting on his
chair in an attitude which might have scandalized the strict Egyptian conservative —
almost lolling, by Egyptian standards. His wife is no smaller than he is, and gently
puts her hands on his shoulders while the Sun-god, represented as a golden orb,
is stretching his hands in blessing down to them.
It is not impossible that this reform of art in the Eighteenth Dynasty was made
easier for the king because he could point to foreign works that were much less strict
and rigid than the Egyptian products. On an island overseas, in Crete, there dwelt
a gifted people whose artists delighted in the representation of swift movement.
When the palace of their king at Cnossos was excavated some fifty years ago, people
could hardly believe that such a free and graceful style could have been developed
in the second millennium before our era. Works in this style were also found on the
Greek mainland; a dagger from Mycenae (Fig. 40) shows a sense of movement and
flowing lines which must have impressed any Egyptian craftsman who had been
permitted to stray from the hallowed rules of his style.
39- The Pharoah Tutankhamen and his wife . Gilt and painted woodwork from the throne
found in his tomb. Made about 1350 B.c. Cairo, Museum
But this opening up of Egyptian art did not last long. Already during the reign
of Tu tankham en the old beliefs were restored, and the window to the outside world
was shut again. The Egyptian style, as it had existed for more than a thousand
years before his time, continued to exist for another thousand years or more, and the
Egyptians doubtless believed it would continue for all eternity. Many Egyptian
works in our museums date from this later period, and so do nearly all Egyptian
40. A dagger from Mycenae. (Reconstruction.) About 1600 B.c. Athens, Museum
Art for Eternity
45
buildings such as temples and
palaces. New themes were intro-
duced and new tasks performed,
but nothing essentially new was
added to the achievement of art.
Egypt, of course, was only one
of the great and powerful empires
which existed in the Near East
for many a thousand years. We
all know from the Bible that
little Palestine lay between the
Egyptian kingdom of the Nile
and the Babylonian and Assyrian
empires which had developed
in the valley of the two rivers
Euphrates and Tigris. The art
of Mesopotamia, as the valley
of the two rivers was called in
Greek, is less well known to us
than the art of Egypt. This is
at least partly due to accident.
There were no stone quarries in
these valleys, and most buildings
were made of baked brick which,
in course of time, weathered
away and fell to dust. Even
sculpture in stone was compara-
tively rare. But this is not the
only explanation of the fact that
relatively few early works of their
art have come down to US. The 4 1 - Fragment of a Harp. Gilt and inlaid wood, found in
. . Ur. Made about 2800 b.c. London, British Museum
main reason is probably that
these people did not share the religious belief of the Egyptians that the human
body and its likeness must be preserved if the soul is to continue. In the very
early times, when a people called the Sumerians ruled in the capital of Ur,
kings were still buried with their whole household, slaves and all, so that they
should not lack a following in the world beyond. Graves of this period have
recently been discovered, and we can now admire some of the household goods
of these ancient, barbarous kings in the British Museum. We see how much refine-
ment and artistic skill can go together with primitive superstition and cruelty.
42. Monument of King Naram-sin found in Susa. About 2500 B.C.
Paris, Louvre
Art for Eternity 47
There was, for instance, a harp in one of the tombs, decorated with fabulous
animals (Fig. 41). They look rather like our heraldic beasts, not only in their general
appearance but also in their arrangement, for the Sumerians had a taste for sym-
metry and precision. We do not know exactly what these fabulous animals were
meant to signify, but it is almost certain that they were figures from the mythology
of these early days, and that the scenes which look to us like pages from a children’s
book had a very solemn and serious meaning.
Though artists in Mesopotamia were not called upon to decorate the walls of
tombs, they, too, had to ensure, in a different way, that the image helped to keep the
mighty alive. From early times onwards it was the custom of Mesopotamian kings
to commission monuments to their victories in war, which told of the tribes that
had been defeated, and the booty that had been taken. Fig. 42 shows such a
relief representing the king who tramples on the body of his slain foe, while others
of his enemies beg for mercy. Perhaps the idea behind these monuments was not
only to keep the memory of these victories aliVe. In early times, at least, the ancient
beliefs in the power of the image may still have influenced those who ordered them.
Perhaps they thought that, as long as the picture of their king with his foot on the
neck of the prostrate enemy stood there, the defeated tribe would not be able to
rise again.
In later times such monuments developed into complete picture-chronicles of
the king’s campaign. The best preserved of these chronicles dates from a relatively
late period, the reign of King Asurnasirpal III of Assyria, who lived in the ninth
43. Assyrian army besieging a fortress. Alabaster relief from the Palace of King Asurnasirpal III.
About 850 b.c. London, British Museum
48 Art for Eternity
century B.C., a little later than the biblical King Solomon. They are kept in
the British Museum. There we see all the episodes of a well-organized campaign;
we see the army crossing rivers and assaulting fortresses (Fig. 43), their camps and
their meals. They way in which these scenes are represented is rather similar to
Egyptian methods, but perhaps a little less tidy and rigid. As one looks at them, one
feels as if one were watching a newsreel of 2,000 years ago. It all looks so real and
convincing. But as we look more carefully we discover a curious fact: there are
plenty of dead and wounded in these gruesome wars — but not one of them is an
Assyrian. The art of boasting and propaganda was well advanced in these early
days. But perhaps we can take a slightly more charitable view of these old Assyrians.
Perhaps even they were still ruled by the old superstition which has come into this
story so often: the superstition that there is more in a picture than a mere picture.
Perhaps they did not want to represent wounded Assyrians for some such strange
reason. In any case, the tradition which began then had a very long life. On all these
monuments which glorify the warlords of the past, war is no trouble at all. You
just appear, and the enemy is scattered like chaff in the wind.
44. An Egyptian craftsman at work on a golden sphinx . Wall-painting from a tomb m Thebes.
About 1400 B.C.
chapter 3 • THE GREAT AWAKENING
Greece, Seventh to Fifth Century B.C.
45. A Doric Temple: the Parthenon. Athens, Acropolis. Designed by iktinus, about 450 B.C.
I T was in the great oasis lands, where the sun bums mercilessly, and where only
the land watered by the rivers provides food, that the earliest styles of art had
been created under Oriental despots, and these styles remained almost unchanged
for thousands of years. Conditions were very different in the milder climes of the
sea which bordered these empires, on the many islands, large and small, of the
eastern Mediterranean and the many-creeked coasts of the peninsulas of Greece
and Asia Minor. These regions were not subject to one ruler. They were the hiding-
places of adventurous seamen, of pirate-kings who travelled far and wide and piled
up great wealth in their castles and harbour-towns by means of trade and sea-raiding.
The main centre of these areas was originally the island of Crete, whose kings were
at times sufficiently rich and powerful to send embassies to Egypt, and whose art
created an impression even there (p. 42).
No one knows exactly who the people were who ruled in Crete, and whose art was
copied on the Greek mainland, particularly in Mycenae. We only know that, round
about 1000 B.C., warlike tribes from Europe penetrated to the rugged peninsula
c**
50
The Great Awakening
I
I
I
46. The mourning of the dead. From a Greek vase in the ‘Geometric Style’ made about 700 B.c.
London, British Museum
of Greece and to the shores of Asia Minor, and fought and defeated the former
inhabitants. Only in the songs which tell of these battles does something survive
of the splendour and beauty of the art which was destroyed in these protracted wars,
for these songs are the Homeric poems, and the new arrivals were Greek tribes.
In the first few centuries of their domination of Greece the art of these tribes
looked harsh and primitive enough. There is nothing of the gay movement of the
Cretan style in these works ; rather did they seem to outdo the Egyptians in rigidity.
Their pottery was decorated with simple geometric patterns, and where a scene
was to be represented it formed part of this strict design. Fig. 46, for instance,
represents the mourning for a dead man. He is lying on his bier, while figures right
and left raise their hands to their heads in the ritual lament which is the custom in
nearly all primitive societies.
Something of this love of simplicity and clear arrangement seems to have gone
into the style of building which the Greeks introduced in these early days, and
which, strange to say, still lives on in our own towns and villages. Fig. 45 shows a
Greek temple of the old style which is called after the Doric tribe. This was the
tribe to which the Spartans, who were noted for their austerity, belonged. There is,
indeed, nothing unnecessary in these buildings, nothing, at least, of which we do not
see, or believe we see, the purpose. Probably the earliest of such temples were built
of timber, and consisted of little else than a small walled cubicle to hold the image
of the god, and, around it, strong props to carry the weight of the roof. About the
year 600 b.c. the Greeks began to imitate these simple structures in stone. The
wooden props were turned into columns which supported strong crossbeams of
stone. These crossbeams are called architraves, and the whole unit resting on the
5i
The Great Awakening
columns goes under the name of entablature.
We can see traces of the timber structure
in the upper part, which looks as if the ends
of beams were showing. These ends were
usually marked with three slits, and are
therefore called by the Greek word triglyphs,
which means ‘three slits’. The space be-
tween these beams is called metope. The
astonishing thing in these early temples,
which so clearly imitate timber buildings,
is the simplicity and harmony of the whole.
If the builders had used simple square
pillars, or cylindrical columns, the build-
ing might have looked heavy and clumsy.
Instead, they took care to shape the columns
so that there was a slight swelling towards
the middle and a tapering off towards the
top. The result is that they look almost as
though they were elastic, and as though
the weight of the roof was just slightly
compressing them, without, however,
squeezing them out of their shape. It
almost seems as if they were living beings
who carried their loads with ease. Though
some of these temples are large and im-
posing, they are not colossal like Egyptian
buildings. One feels that they were built by
human beings, and for human beings. In
fact, there was no divine ruler over the
Greeks who could or would have forced a
whole people to slave for him. The Greek
tribes had settled down in various small
cities and harbour-towns. There was much
rivalry and friction between these small
communities, but none of them succeeded
in lording it over all the others.
Of these Greek city-states, Athens in
. 47. Statue of a Youth . Found in Delphi,
Attica became by tar the most famous and signed by polymedes of Argos, and
the most important in the history of art. It probably representing one of the brothers
J Cleobis and Biton. About 580 b.c.
was here, above all, that the greatest and Delphi, Museum
52 The Great Awakening
most astonishing revolution in the whole history of art bore fruit. It is hard to tell
when and where this revolution began — perhaps roughly at the time when the first
temples of stone were being built in Greece, in the sixth century B.c. We know that
before that time the artists of the old Oriental empires had striven for a peculiar
kind of perfection. They had tried to emulate the art of their forefathers as faithfully
as possible, and to adhere strictly to the sacred rules they had learned. When Greek
artists began to make statues of stone, they started where the Egyptians and
Assyrians had left off. Fig. 47 shows that they studied and imitated Egyptian models,
and that they learned from them how to make the figure of a standing young man,
how to mark the divisions of the body and the muscles which hold it together. But
it also shows that the artist who made this statue was not content to follow any
formula, however good, and that he began experimenting for himself. He was
obviously interested in finding out what knees really looked like. Perhaps he did not
quite succeed; perhaps the knees of his statue are even less convincing than those
of Egyptian statues ; but the point was that he had decided to have a look for himself
instead of following the old prescription. It was no longer a question of learning a
ready-made formula for representing the human body. Every Greek sculptor
wanted to know how he was to represent a particular body. The Egyptians had based
their art on knowledge. The Greeks began to use their eyes. Once this revolution
had begun, there was no stopping it. The sculptors in their workshops tried out new
ideas and new ways of representing the human figure, and each innovation was
eagerly taken up by others who added their own discoveries. One discovered how
to chisel the trunk, another found out that a statue may look much more alive if
the feet are not placed too firmly on the ground. Yet another would discover that
he could make a face come alive by simply bending the mouth upwards so that it
appeared to smile. Of course, the Egyptian method was in many ways safer. The
experiments of the Greek artists sometimes misfired. The smile might look like an
embarrassed grin, or the less rigid stance might give the impression of affectation.
But the Greek artists were not easily frightened by these difficulties. They had set
^put on a road on which there was no turning back.
The painters followed suit. We know little of their work except what the Greek
writers tell us, but it is important to realize that many Greek painters were even
more famous in their time than the Greek sculptors. The only way in which we can
form a vague idea of what Greek painting was like is by looking at the pictures on
pottery. These painted vessels are generally called vases, although they were intended
more often to hold wine or oil than flowers. The painting of these vases developed
into an important industry in Athens, and the humble craftsmen employed in these
workshops were just as eager as the other artists to introduce the latest discoveries
into their products. In the early vases, painted in the sixth century b.c., we still see
traces of the Egyptian methods (Fig. 48). We see the two heroes from Homer,
53
The Great Awakening
Achilles and Ajax, playing
draughts in their tent. Both
figures are still shown strictly
in profile. Their eyes still look
as seen from in front. But their
bodies are no longer drawn in
the Egyptian fashion, nor are
their arms and hands set out
so clearly and so rigidly. The
painter had obviously tried to
imagine what it would really
look like if two people were
facing each other in that way.
He was no longer afraid of
showing only a small part of
Achilles’ left hand, the rest
being hidden behind the
shoulder. He no longer thought
that anything he knew to be
there must also be shown.
Once this ancient rule was
broken, once the artist began
to rely on what he saw, a
veritable landslide started.
Painters made the greatest dis-
covery of all, the discovery of
foreshortening. It was a tremendous moment in the history of art when, perhaps
a little before 500 b.c., artists dared for the first time in all history to paint a foot
as seen from in front. In all the thousands of Egyptian and Assyrian works which
have come down to us, nothing of that kind had ever happened. A Greek vase
(Fig. 49) shows with what pride this discovery was taken up. We see a young
warrior putting on his armour for battle. His parents on either side, who assist him
and probably give him good advice, are still represented in rigid profile. The head
of the youth in the middle is also shown in profile, and we can see that the painter
did not find it too easy to fit this head on to the body, which we see from the front.
The right foot, too, is still drawn in the ‘safe’ way, but the left foot is foreshortened
— we see the five toes like a row of five little circles. It may seem exaggerated to
dwell for long on such a small detail, but it really meant that the old art was dead
and buried. It meant that the artist no longer aimed at including everything in the
picture in its most clearly visible form, but took account of the angle from which he
48. Greek vase in the ‘Blackjigured Style 9 with Achilles and
Ajax playing draughts. Signed by exekias. About 540 B.C,
Vatican Museum
54
The Great Awakening
49. The Warrior's Leavetaking . After a vase of the ‘Redfigured Style’ signed by euthymides,
about 500 B.C. Munich, Antiquarium
saw an object. And immediately beside the foot he showed what he meant. He
drew the youth’s shield, not in the shape in which we might see it in our imagination
as a round, but seen from the side, leaning against a wall.
But as we look at this picture and the previous one, we also realize that the
lessons of Egyptian art had not simply been discarded and thrown overboard. Greek
artists still tried to make their figures as clear in outline as possible, and to include
as much of their knowledge of the human body as would go into the picture without
doing violence to its appearance. They still loved firm outlines and balanced design.
They were far from trying to copy any casual glimpse of nature as they saw it. The
old formula, the type of human form as it had developed in all these centuries, was
still their starting-point. Only they no longer considered it sacred in every detail.
V^The great revolution of Greek art, the discovery of natural forms and of fore-
shortening, happened at the time which is altogether the most amazing period of
human history. It is the time when people in the Greek cities began to question
the old traditions and legends about the gods, and inquired without prejudice into
the nature of things./It is the time when science, as we understand the term today,
and philosophy first awoke among men, and when the theatre first developed out
The Great Awakening 55
of the ceremonies in honour of Dionysus. We must not imagine, however, that the
artists in those days were among the intellectual classes of the city .The rich Greeks
who managed the affairs of their city, and who spent their time in the market-place
in endless arguments, perhaps even the poets and philosophers, mostly looked down
on the sculptors and painters as inferior persons. Artists worked with their hands,
and they worked for a living. They sat in their foundries, covered with sweat and
grime, they toiled like ordinary navvies, and so they were not considered full
members of the Greek society. Nevertheless, their share in the life of the city was
infinitely greater than that of an Egyptian or an Assyrian craftsman, because most
Greek cities, Athens in particular, were democracies in which these humble workers
who were despised by the well-to-do snobs were yet allowed to share to some extent
in the business of government.
✓ It was at the time when Athenian democracy had reached its highest level that
Greek art came to the summit of its development. After Athens had defeated the
Persian invasion, the people, under the leadership of Pericles, began to build again
what the Persians had destroyed. In 480 B.c. the temples on the sacred rock of
Athens, the Acropolis, had been burned down and sacked by the Persians. Now
they were to be built in marble and with a splendour and nobility never known be-
fore (Fig. 45). Pericles was no snob. The ancient writers imply that he treated the
artists of his time as his equals. The man he entrusted with the planning of the
temples was the architect Iktinus, and the sculptor who was to fashion the figures
of the gods and to supervise the decoration of the temples was Pheidias.
The fame of Pheidias is founded on works which no longer exist. But it is not
unimportant to try to imagine what they were like, because we forget too easily
what purpose Greek art still served at that time. We read in the Bible how the
prophets inveighed against the worship of idols, but we do not usually connect any
very concrete ideas with these words. There are many passages like the following
from Jeremiah (x. 3-5):
‘For the customs of the people are vain; for one cutteth a tree out of the forest,
the work of the hands of the workman, with the axe. They deck it with silver and
with gold; they fasten it with nails and with hammers, that it move not. They are
upright as the palmtree, but speak not: they must needs be borne, because they
cannot go. Be not afraid of them; for they cannot do evil, neither also is it in them
to do good.’
What Jeremiah had in mind were the idols of Mesopotamia, made of wood and
precious metals. But his words would apply almost exactly to the works of Pheidias,
made only a few centuries after the prophet’s lifetime. As we walk along the rows
of white marble statues from classical antiquity in the great museums, we too often
forget that among them are these idols of which the Bible speaks : that people prayed
before them, that sacrifices were brought to them amidst strange incantations, and
56
The Great Awakening
50. Athena Parthenos. Roman marble copy after a big temple
statue made by pheidi as between 447 and 432 b.c.
Athens, National Museum
that thousands and tens of
thousands of worshippers
may have approached
them with hope and fear
in their hearts — wonder-
ing, as the prophet says,
whether these statues and
graven images were not
really at the same time
gods themselves. In fact,
the very reason why nearly
all the famous statues of
the ancient world perished
was that after the victory
of Christianity it was con-
sidered a pious duty to
smash any statue of the
heathen gods. The sculp-
tures in our museums are,
for the most part, only
secondhand copies made
in Roman times for tra-
vellers and collectors as
souvenirs, and as decora-
tions for gardens or public
baths. We must be very
grateful for these copies,
because they give us at
least a faint idea of the
famous masterpieces of
Greek art; but unless we
use our imagination these
weak imitations can also
do much harm. They
are largely responsible for
the widespread idea that
Greek art was lifeless, cold
and insipid, and that Greek
statues had that chalky ap-
pearance and vacant look
57
The Great Awakening
which reminds one of old-
fashioned drawing classes.The
only copy of the great idol of
Pallas Athene, for instance,
which Pheidias made for her
temple in the Parthenon (Fig.
50), hardly looks very impres-
sive. We must turn to old
descriptions and try to picture
what it was like: a gigantic
wooden image, some thirty-six
feet high, as high as a tree,
covered all over with precious
material — the armour and gar-
ments of gold, the skin of ivory.
There was also plenty of strong,
shining colour on the shield
and other parts of the armour,
not forgetting the eyes which
were made of glistening jewels.
There were griffons on the
golden helmet of the goddess, and the eyes of a huge snake which was coiled inside
the shield were, no doubt, also marked by shining stones. It must have been an awe-
inspiring and uncanny sight when one entered the temple and suddenly stood face
to face with this gigantic statue. There was no doubt something almost primitive and
savage in some of its features, something which still linked an idol of this kind with
the ancient superstitions against which the prophet Jeremiah had preached. But
already these primitive ideas about the gods as formidable demons who dwelt in the
statues had ceased to be the main thing. Pallas Athene, as Pheidias saw her and as he
fashioned her statue, was more than the mere idol of a demon. From all accounts we
know that his statue had a dignity which gave the people quite a different idea of the
character and meaning of their gods. The Athene of Pheidias was like a great human
being. Her power lay, not in any magic spells, but in her beauty. People realized
at the time that the art of Pheidias had given the people of Greece a new conception
of the divine.
The two great works of Pheidias, his Athene and his famous statue of Zeus in
Olympia, have been irretrievably lost, but the temples in which they were placed
still exist, and with them some of the decorations that were made at the time of
Pheidias. The temple in Olympia is the older one ; it was perhaps begun round about
470 B.c., and finished before 457 b.c. In the squares (metopes) over the architrave
51. Hercules carrying the Heavens. From the Temple of
Zeus at Olympia. About 460 B.c. Olympia, Museum
58 The Great Awakening
the deeds of Hercules were represented. Fig. 51 shows the episode when he was
sent to fetch the apples of the Hesperides. That was a task which even Hercules
could not, or would not, perform. He entreated Atlas, who bore the heavens on his
shoulders, to do it for him and Atlas agreed on condition that Hercules would carry
his burden in the meantime. On this relief Atlas is shown returning with the golden
apples to Hercules, who stands taut beneath his huge load. Athene, his cunning
helper in all his deeds, has put a cushion on his shoulder to make it easier for him.
In her right hand she once held a metal spear. The whole story is told with a wonder-
ful simplicity and clarity. We feel that the artist still preferred to show a figure in a
straightforward attitude, from the front or side. Athene is shown squarely facing
us, and only her head is turned sideways towards Hercules. It is not difficult to sense
in these figures the lingering influence of the rules which governed Egyptian art.
But we feel that the greatness, the majestic calm and strength which belong to these
statues, are also due to this observance of ancient rules. For these rules had ceased
to be a hindrance, cramping the artist’s freedom. The old idea that it was important
to show the structure of the body — its main hinges, as it were, which help us to
realize how it all hangs together — spurred the artist on to explore the anatomy of
the bones and muscles, and to build up a convincing picture of the human figure
which remains visible even under the flow of the drapery. The way, in fact, in
which Greek artists used the drapery to mark these main divisions of the body still
shows what importance they attached to the knowledge of form. It is this balance
between an adherence to rules and a freedom within the rules which has
made Greek art so much admired in later centuries. It is for this that artists have
returned again and again to the masterpieces of Greek art for guidance and
inspiration.
The type of work which Greek artists were frequently asked to do may have helped
them to perfect their knowledge of the human body in action. A temple like that of
Olympia was surrounded by statues of victorious athletes dedicated to the gods. To
us this may seem a strange custom for, however popular our champions may be, we
do not expect them to have their portraits made and presented to a church in thanks-
giving for a victory achieved in the latest match. But the great sports rallies of the
Greeks, of which the Olympic Games were, of course, the most famous, were some-
thing very different from our modern contests. They were much more closely con-
nected with the religious beliefs and rites of the people. Those who took part in them
were not sportsmen — whether amateur or professional — but members of the fadin g
families of Greece, and the victor in these games was looked upon with awe as a man
whom the gods had favoured with the spell of invincibility. It was to find out on whom
this blessing of victoriousness rested that the games were originally held, and it
was to commemorate and perhaps to perpetuate these signs of divine grace that the
winners commissioned their statues from the most renowned artists of the tiW ,
The Great Awakening
59
52. Head of the bronze statue of a charioteer. Found in Delphi. Made about 470 B.C.
Delphi, Museum
Diggings in Olympia have unearthed a good many of the pedestals on which these
famous statues rested, but the statues themselves have disappeared. They were
mostly made of bronze and were probably melted down when metal became scarce
in the Middle Ages. Only in Delphi has one of these statues been found, the figure
of a charioteer whose head is shown in Fig. 52. It is amazingly different from the
general idea one may easily form of Greek art when one only looks at copies. The
eyes which look often so blank and expressionless in marble statues or are empty in
6o
The Great Awakening
bronze-heads are marked in coloured
stones — as they always were at that
time. The hair, eyes and lips were
slightly gilt which gave an effect of
richness and warmth to the whole face.
And yet such a head never looked
gaudy or vulgar. We can see that the
artist was not out to imitate a real face
with all its imperfections but that he
shaped it out of his knowledge of the
human form. We do not know whether
the charioteer is a good likeness —
probably it is no ‘likeness* at all in
the sense in which we understand the
word. But it is a convincing image of
a human being, of wonderful simplicity
and beauty.
Works like this which are not even
mentioned by the classical Greek
writers remind us what we must have
lost in the most famous of these statues
M . , v D ,, of athletes such as the ‘Discus
^,53. Discus Thrower ( Discobolos ). Roman marble
copy, after a bronze statue byMYRON. Thrower* by the Athenian sculptor
About 450 B.c. Munich, Glyptothek Myron, who probably belonged to the
same generation as did Pheidias. Various copies of this work have been found
which allow us at least to form a general idea of what it looked like (Fig. 53). The
young athlete was represented at the moment when he is just about to hurl the
heavy discus. He has bent down and swung his arm backwards so as to be able to
throw with greater force. At the next moment he will spin round and let fly,
supporting the throw with a turn of his body. The attitude looks so convincing that
modem athletes have taken it for a model and have tried to leam from it the exact
Greek style of throwing the discus. But this has proved less easy than they had
hoped. They had forgotten that Myron’s statue is not a ‘still’ from a sports reel
but a Greek work of art. In fact if we look at it more carefully we shall find that
Myron has achieved his astonishing effect of movement mainly through a new
adaptation of very ancient artistic methods. Standing in front of the statue and
thinking only of its outlines we become suddenly aware of its relation to the tradition
of Egyptian art. Like the Egyptians, Myron has given us the trunk in front view,
the legs and arms in side view, like them he has composed his picture of a man’s
body out of the most characteristic views of its parts. But under his hands this old
• The Great Awakening 61
'S 54* Charioteers. Detail from the marble frieze of the Parthenon. About 440 b.c.
London^ British Museum
and outworn formula has become something entirely different. Instead of fitting
these views together into an unconvincing likeness of a rigid pose, he asked a real
model to take up a similar attitude and so adapted it that it could look like a con-
vincing representation of a body in motion. Whether or not this corresponds to the
exact movement most suitable for throwing the discus is hardly relevant. What
matters is that Myron conquered movement just as the painters of his time
conquered space.
Of all Greek originals which have come down to us the sculptures from the
Parthenon reflect this new freedom perhaps in the most wonderful way. The Par-
thenon (Fig. 45) was completed some twenty years after the temple of Olympia, and
in that brief span of time artists had acquired an ever greater ease and facility in
solving the problems of convincing representation. We do not know who the sculp-
tors were who made these decorations of the temple, but as Pheidias made the statue
in the shrine it seems likely that his workshop also provided the other sculptures.
Figs. 54 and 55 show fragments of the long band or frieze that ran round the
building under the roof and represented the annual procession on the solemn festival
6 2
55* Detail from the procession of horsemen, the marble frieze of the Parthenon. About 440 B.c.
London, British Museum
of the goddess. There were always games and sports displays during these festivities,
one of which consisted in the dangerous feat of driving a chariot and jumping on
and off while the four horses galloped along. It is such a display that is shown in
Fig. 54. At first it may be difficult to find one’s way about on that first fragment
63
The Great Awakening
because the relief is very badly
damaged. Not only is part of
the surface broken off, the
whole of the colour has gone
which probably made the
figures stand out brightly
against an intensely coloured
background. To us the colour
and texture of fine marble is
something so wonderful that
we would never want to cover
it with paint, but the Greeks
even painted their temples
with strong contrasting colours
such as red and blue. But,
however little may be left of
the original work, it is always
worth while with Greek sculp-
tures to try to forget what is
not there for the sheer joy of
discovering what is left^The
first we see in our fragment is
the horses, four of them, one
behind the other. Their heads
and their legs are sufficiently
well preserved to give us an
idea of the mastery with which the artist contrived to show the structure of the
bones and muscles without the whole looking stiff or dry. Soon we see that
the same must also have been true of the human figures. We can imagine from
the traces that are left how freely they moved and how clearly the muscles of
their bodies stood out. Foreshortening no longer presented a great problem to the
artist. The arm with the shield is drawn with perfect ease, and so is the fluttering
crest of the helmet and the bulging coat which is blown by the wind. But all these
new discoveries do not ‘run away* with the artist. However much he may have
enjoyed this conquest of space and movement, we do not feel that he is eager to
show off what he can do. However lively and spirited the groups have become, they
still fit well into the arrangement of the solemn procession which moves along the
wall of the building. He has retained something of the artistic wisdom of arrange-
ment which Greek art derived from the Egyptians and from the training in geometri-
cal patterns which had preceded the Great Awakening. Every Greek work from that
64 The Great Awakening
great periods show th i s wisdom and skill in the distribution of figures, and it is this
sense of poise which turns a simple tombstone like Fig. 56 into a great work of art.
The relief shows Hegeso, who is buried under the stone, as she was in life. A
servant girl stands in front of her and offers her a chest from which she seems to
select a piece of jewellery. It is a quiet scene which we might compare to the
Egyptian representation of Tutankhamen on his throne with his wife adjusting his
collar (page 44, Fig. 39). The Egyptian work, too, is wonderfully clear in its outline,
but despite the fact that it dates from an exceptional period of Egyptian art it is rather
stiff and unnatural. The Greek relief has shed all these awkward limitations, but it
has retained the lucidity and beauty of the arrangement which is no longer geo-
metrical and angular but free and relaxed. The way the upper half is framed by the
curve of the two women’s arms, the way these lines are answered in the curves of the
stool, the simple method by which Hegeso’s beautiful hand becomes the centre ot
attention, the flow of the drapery round the forms of the body — all this combines
to produce that simple harmony which only came into the world with Greek art
of the fifth century.
57. Greek Sculptor's Workshop. Left : The bronze foundry with sketches on the wall.
Right : Man at work on a headless statue , the head lying on the ground . From a Greek bowl.
About 480 B.c. Berlin, Museum
58. Maiden gathering Flowers. Wall-painting from Stabiac. First century A.D.
59* Praxiteles: Head of Hermes. Detail of Fig. 62
chapter 4 • THE REALM OF BEAUTY
Greece and the Greek World, Fourth Century B.C. to
First Century A.D.
60 . An Ionic Temple: the Erechtheion. Athens, Acropolis, built after 420 B.C.
T HE great awakening of art to freedom had taken place in the hundred
years between, roughly, 520 and 420 b.c. Towards the end of the fifth
century, artists had become fully conscious of their power and mastery,
and so had the public. Though artists were still looked upon as craftsmen and,
perhaps, despised by the snobs, an increasing number of people began to be
D
68 The Realm of Beauty
interested in their work for its own sake,
and not only for the sake of its religious or
political functions. People discussed the
merits of the various ‘schools’ of art; that
is to say, of the various methods, styles
and traditions which distinguished the
masters in different cities. There is no
doubt that the comparison and competi-
tion between these schools stimulated the
artists to ever-greater efforts, and helped
to create that variety which we admire in
Greek art. In architecture, various styles
began to be used side by side. The Par-
thenon had been built in the Doric style
(Fig. 45), but in the later buildings of the
Acropolis the forms of the so-called Ionic
style were introduced.The building which
shows it at its most perfect is the T emple of
Poseidon called the Erechtheion (Fig. 60).
The principle of these temples is the same
as that of the Doric ones, but the whole
appearanceandcharacterarevery different.
The columns of the Ionic temple are much
less robust and strong. They are like slender shafts, and the capital or headpiece is
no longer a simple unadorned cushion, but is richly decorated with volutes on the
sides, which again seem to express the function of the part which carries the beam
on which the roof rests. The whole impression of these buildings with their finely
wrought details is one of infinite grace and ease.
The same characteristics of grace and ease also mark the sculpture and painting
of this period, which begins with the generation after Pheidias. Athens, during this
period, was involved in a fearful war with Sparta which ended her prosperity and
that of Greece. In 408 B.c., during a brief spell of peace, a small temple to the
goddess of victory was erected on the Acropolis, and its sculptures and ornaments
show the change of taste towards delicacy and refinement which is also reflected in
the Ionic style. The figures have been sadly mutilated, but I should like nevertheless
to illustrate one of them (Fig. 61) to show how beautiful even this broken figure
without head or hands still is. It is the figure of a girl, one of the goddesses of
.victory, stooping to fasten a loosened sandal as she walks. With what charm this
sudden halt is portrayed, and how softly and richly the thin drapery falls over the
beautiful body! We can see in these works that the artist could do whatever
The Realm of Beauty 69
he wanted. He was no longer
struggling with any difficulty in
representing movement or fore-
shortening. This very ease and
virtuosity made him perhaps a
little self-conscious. The artist
of the Parthenon frieze (p. 61,
Fig. 54) did not seem to think
overmuch about his art or what
he was doing. He knew that his
task was to represent a proces-
sion, and he took pains to
represent it as clearly and well
as he could. He was hardly con-
scious of the fact that he was a
great master of whom old and
young alike would still be
talking thousands of years later.
The frieze of the Victory temple
shows, perhaps, the beginning
of a change of attitude. This
artist was proud of his immense
power, as well he might be. And
so, gradually, during the fourth
century, the approach to art
changed. Pheidias’ statues of
gods had been famous all over
Greece as representations of
gods. The great temple statues
of the fourth century earned
their reputation more by virtue
of their beauty as works of art.
People discussed pictures and
statues as they discussed poems and plays; they praised their beauty or criticized
their form and style.
The greatest artist of that century, Praxiteles, was above all famed for the charm
of his work and for the sweet and insinuating character of his creations. His most
celebrated work, whose praise was sung in many poems, represented the goddess
of Love, the youthful Aphrodite, stepping into her bath. But this work has disap-
peared ; only one original statue by him is known, and it was by no means so famous
70 The Realm of Beauty
in antiquity. It represents the god Hermes holding young Dionysus on his arm
and playing with him (Fig. 62, and p. 66, Fig. 59). If we look back at page 51,
Fig. 47, we see what an enormous distance Greek art has travelled in two hundred
years. In the work of Praxiteles all traces of rigidity have gone. The god stands
before us in a relaxed pose which does not impair his dignity. But, if we think about
the way in which Praxiteles has achieved this effect, we begin to realize that even
then the lesson of ancient art had not been forgotten. Praxiteles, too, takes care to
show us the hinges of the body, to make us understand its working as clearly as
possible. But he can now do all that without keeping his statue stiff and lifeless. He
can show the muscles and bones swelling and moving under the soft skin, and can
give the impression of a living body in all its grace and beauty. Nevertheless, it is
necessary to understand that Praxiteles and the other Greek artists achieved this
beauty through knowledge. There is no living body quite as symmetrical, well-built
and beautiful as those of the Greek statues. People often think that what the artists
did was to look at many models and to leave out any feature they did not like: that
they started by carefully copying the appearance of a real man, and then beautified
it by omitting any irregularities or traits which did not conform to their idea of a
perfect body. They say that Greek artists ‘idealized’ nature, and they think of it in
terms of a photographer who touches up a portrait by deleting small blemishes. But
a touched-up photograph and an idealized statue usually lack character and vigour.
So much has been left out and deleted, that little remains but a pale and insipid
ghost of the model. The Greek approach was really exactly the opposite. Through
all these centuries, the artists we have been discussing were concerned with infusing
more and more life into the ancient husks. In the time of Praxiteles their method
bore its ripest fruits. The old types had begun to move and breathe under the hands
of the skilful sculptor, and they stand before us like real human beings, and yet as
beings from a different, better world. They are, in fact, beings from a different world,
not because the Greeks were healthier or more beautiful than other men — there is
no reason to think they were — but because art at that moment had reached a point
at which the typical and the individual were poised in a new and delicate balance.
Many of the most famous works of classical art which were admired in later
times as representing the most perfect types of human beings are copies or variants
of statues which were created in this period, the middle of the fourth century b.c.
The Apollo Belvedere (Fig. 63) shows the ideal model of a man’s body. As he
stands before us in his impressive pose, holding up the bow in the extended arm
and the head turned sideways as if he was following the arrow with his eyes, we have
no difficulty in recognizing the faint echo of the ancient scheme in which each part
of the body was given its most characteristic view. Among the famous classical
statues of Venus, the Venus of Milo (so called because it was found on the island
of Melos) is perhaps the best known (Fig. 64). Probably it belonged to a group of
The Realm of Beauty
7i
63. Apollo Belvedere.
Roman marble copy (the hands modern) after
a Greek statue probably dating from
about 350 B.c. Vatican, Museum
64. The Venus of Milo.
Greek statue of first century b.c.
Probably imitation of a fourth-
century work. Paris, Louvre
Venus and Cupid which was made in a somewhat later period, but which used the
achievements and the methods of Praxiteles. It, too, was designed to be seen from
the side (Venus was extending her arms towards Cupid), and again we can admire
the clarity and simplicity with which the artist modelled the beautiful body, the
way he marked its main divisions without ever becoming harsh or vague.
Of course, this method of creating beauty by making a general and schematic
figure more and more lifelike until the marble’s surface seems to live and breathe
has one drawback. It was possible to create convincing human types by this means,
but would this method ever lead to the representation of real individual human
beings ? Strange as it may sound to us, the idea of a portrait, in the sense in which
we use the word, did not occur to the Greeks until rather late in the fourth century.
True, we hear of portraits made in earlier times (p. 59, Fig. 52), but these statues
were probably not very good likenesses. A portrait of a general was little more than
a picture of any good-looking soldier with a helmet and a staff. The artist never
reproduced the shape of his nose, the furrows of his brow or his individual expression.
72 The Realm of Beauty
It is a strange fact, which we have not yet
discussed, that Greek artists in the works
we have seen have avoided giving the faces
a particular expression. This is really more
astonishing than it seems at first sight,
because we can hardly scribble any simple
face on our blotting-paper without giving
it some marked (usually a funny) expres-
sion. Greek statues, of course, are not
expressionless in the sense of looking dull
and blank, but their faces never seem to
betray any definite feeling. To do that, the
Greek masters would have had to show
the play of the features, which would have
distorted and destroyed the simple regu-
larity of the head.
It was in the generation after Praxiteles,
towards the end of the fourth century,
that this further great discovery was made
in art. By the time of Alexander the Great, towards the end of the fourth century,
the heads of the statues usually look much more animated and alive than the beautiful
faces of earlier works .Together with this mastery of expression, artists also learned to
seize the individual character of a physiognomy and to make portraits in our sense of
the word. It was in the time of Alexander that people started to discuss this new art
of portraiture. A writer of that period, caricaturing the irritating habits of flatterers
and toadies, mentions that they always burst out in loud praise of the striking likeness
of their patron’s portrait. Alexander himself preferred to be portrayed by his court
sculptor Lysippus, the most celebrated artist of the day, whose faithfulness to nature
astonished his contemporaries. His portrait of Alexander is thought to have come
down to us in a copy (Fig. 65), and we can see from it how much art had changed
since the time of the Delphic charioteer, or even since the time of Praxiteles, who was
only a generation older than Lysippus. Of course, the trouble with all ancient portraits
is that we really cannot pronounce on their likeness — much less, in fact, than the
flatterer in the story. Perhaps if we could see a snapshot of Alexander we should find it
quite unlike the bust. We might find that the figure of Lysippus resembles a god much
more than it does the real conqueror of Asia. But so much we can say : a man such as
Alexander, a resdess spirit, immensely gifted but rather spoilt by success, might well
have looked like this bust with its upraised eyebrows and its lively expression.
The foundation of an empire by Alexander was an enormously important event
for Greek art, for thereby it developed from being the concern of a few small cities
65. Head of Alexander the Great. Probably
copy after a portrait by LYSIPPUS. About
330 B.c. Istambul, Museum
The Realm of Beauty 73
into the pictorial language of almost half the world.This change was bound to affect
its character. We usually refer to this art of the later period not as Greek art, but as
Hellenistic art, because that is the name usually given to the empires founded by
Alexander’s successors on eastern soil.The rich capitals of these empires, Alexandria
in Egypt, Antiochia in Syria and Pergamon in Asia Minor, made different demands
on the artists from those to which they had been accustomed in Greece. Even in
architecture the strong and simple forms of the Doric style and the easy grace of
the Ionic style were not enough. A new form of column was preferred, which had
been invented early in the fourth century and which was called after the wealthy
merchant city of Corinth (Fig. 66). In the Corinthian style, foliage was added to the
Ionic spiral volutes to decorate the capital, and there are generally more and richer
ornaments all over the building. This luxurious mode suited the sumptuous build-
ings which were laid out on a vast scale in the newly founded cities of the East. Few
of them have been preserved, but what remains from later periods gives us an im-
pression of great magnificence and splendour/ The styles and inventions of Greek
art were applied on the scale, and to the traditions, of the Oriental empires.^
I have said that Greek art was bound to undergo a change in the Hellenistic
period. This change can be noticed in some of the most famous works of that age.
One of them is an altar from the city of Pergamon which was erected about 170 B.c.
(Fig. 67). The sculpture on it represents the struggle between the gods and the
Titans. It is a magnificent work, but we look in vain for the harmony and refinement
of earlier Greek sculpture. The artist was obviously aiming at strong dramatic effects.
The battle rages with terrible violence. The clumsy Titans are overwhelmed by the
triumphant gods, and they look up in agony and pain. Everything is full of wild
movement and fluttering drapery. To make the effect still more striking, the relief
is no longer set flat on the wall but is composed of almost free-standing figures
which, in their struggle, seem to overflow on to the steps of the altar as if they
hardly troubled about where they belonged. Hellenistic art loved such wild and
vehement works : it wished to be impressive, and impressive it certainly is.
Some of the works of classical sculpture which have enjoyed the greatest fame in
later times were created in the Hellenistic period. When the group of the Laocoon
(Fig. 68) came to light in 1506, artists and art lovers were literally overwhelmed by
the effect of this tragic group. It represents the terrible scene which is also described
in Virgil’s Aeneis: The Trojan priest Laocoon has warned his compatriots against
accepting the gigantic horse in which Greek soldiers were hiding. The gods who
see their plans of destroying Troy thwarted send two gigantic snakes from the sea
which catch the priest and his two unfortunate sons in their coils and suffocate
them. It is one of the stories of senseless cruelty perpetrated by the Olympians
against poor mortals which are quite frequent in Greek and Latin mythologies. One
would like to know how the story struck the Greek artist who conceived this
74
The Realm of Beauty
impressive group. Did he want us to
feel the horror of a scene in which an
innocent victim is made to suffer for
having spoken the truth? Or did he
mainly want to show off his own power
of representing a terrifying and some-
what sensational fight between man and
beast ? He had every reason to be proud
of his skill. The way in which the
muscles of the trunk and the arms con-
vey the effort and the suffering of the
hopeless struggle, the expression of
pain in the face of the priest, the help-
less wriggling of the two boys and the
way all this turmoil and movement is
frozen into a permanent group have
excited admiration ever since. But I cannot help suspecting sometimes that this was
an art which was meant to appeal to a public which also enjoyed the horrible sights
of the gladiatorial fights. Perhaps it is wrong to blame the artist for that. The fact
is probably that by this time, the period of Hellenism, art had largely lost its old
connexion with magic and religion. Artists became interested in the problems of
their craft for its own sake, and the problem of how to represent such a dramatic
66 .
* Corinthian * Capital. Found in Epidaurus.
About 300 b.c. Epidaurus, Museum
The Realm of Beauty
75
68. Laocoon and his Sons. Marble group from the workshop of h ages andros, athenodoros and
polydoros of Rhodes. (The right arms wrongly restored.) Made about 25 b.c. Vatican, Museum
contest with all its movement, its expression and its tension, was just the type of
task which would test an artist’s mettle. The rights or wrongs of Laocoon s fate
may not have occurred to the sculptor at all.
It was in this time, and in this atmosphere, that rich people began to collect works
of art, to have famous ones copied if they could not get hold of originals, and to pay
69. Head of a Faun. Detail of a wall-painting from Herculaneum. Probably the copy of
a Pergamenian painting dating from the second century b.c. Naples* National Museum
fabulous prices for those which they could obtain. Writers began to be interested in
art and wrote about the artists’ lives, collected anecdotes about their oddities and
composed guide-books for tourists. Many of the masters most famous among the
ancients were painters rather than sculptors, and we know nothing about their
works except what we find in those extracts from classical art books which have
come down to us. We know that these painters, too, were interested in the special
The Realm of Beauty 77
70. Landscape. Wall-painting. From the first century a.d. Rome, Villa Albani
problems of their crafts rather than in their art serving a religious purpose. We hear
of masters who specialized in subjects from everyday life, who painted barber’s
shops or scenes from the theatre, but all these paintings are lost to us. The only way
in which we can form some idea of the character of ancient painting is by looking
at the decorative wall-paintings and mosaics which have come to light in Pompeii
and elsewhere. Pompeii was a summer resort for rich Romans, and was buried
beneath the ashes of Vesuvius in a.d. 79. Almost every house and villa in that
town had paintings on its walls, painted columns and vistas, imitations of framed
pictures and of the stage. These paintings are, of course, not all masterpieces, though
it is astonishing to see how much good work there was in such a small and rather
unimportant town. We should hardly cut so good a figure if one of our seaside
resorts were to be excavated by posterity. The painters and interior decorators of
Pompeii obviously drew freely on the stock of inventions made by the great Hellen-
istic artists. Among much that is humdrum we sometimes discover a figure of such
exquisite beauty and grace as Fig. 58, which represents one of the Hours, picking
a blossom as if in a dance. Or we find such details as the head of a faun (Fig. 69),
from another painting, which gives us an idea of the mastery and freedom which
these artists had acquired in the handling of expression.
Nearly every kind of thing that would go into a picture is to be found among these
wall-paintings of Pompeii. Pretty still lifes, for instance, such as two lemons with
a glass of water, and pictures of animals. Even landscape paintings existed there.
This was perhaps the greatest innovation of the Hellenistic period. Ancient Oriental
art had no use for landscapes except as settings for their scenes of human life or of
military campaigns. For Greek art at the time of Pheidias or Praxiteles, man
remained the main subject of the artist’s interest. In the Hellenistic period, the time
when poets like Theocritus discovered the charm of the simple life among shepherds.
78 The Realm of Beauty
artists also tried to conjure up the pleasures of the countryside for sophisticated
town-dwellers. These paintings are not actual views of particular country houses
or beauty-spots. They are rather collections of everything which makes up an
idyllic scene: shepherds and cattle, simple shrines and distant villas and moun-
tains (Fig. 70). Everything was charmingly arranged in these pictures, and all the
set-pieces were looking their best. We really feel that we are looking at a peaceful
scene. Nevertheless, even these works are much less realistic than we might think
at first glance. If we were to start asking awkward questions, or try to draw a map
of the locality, we should soon find out that it could not be done. We do not know
how great the distance between the shrine and the villa is supposed to be, nor how
near or how far the bridge from the shrine. The fact is that even Hellenistic artists
did not know what we call the laws of perspective. The famous avenue of poplars,
which recedes to a vanishing point and which we all drew at school, was not then
a standard task. Artists drew distant things small, and near or important things
large, but the law of regular diminution of objects as they become more distant, the
fixed framework in which we arrange our pictures, was not known to classical
antiquity. Indeed, it took more than another thousand years before it was discovered.
Thus even the latest, freest and most confident works of ancient art still preserve at
least a remnant of the principle which we discussed in our description of Egyptian
painting. Even here, knowledge of the characteristic outline of individual objects
counts for as much as the actual impression received through the eye. We have long
recognized that this quality is not a fault in works of art, to be regretted and looked
down upon, but that it is possible to achieve artistic perfection within any style.
The Greeks broke through the rigid taboos of early Oriental art, and went out on a
voyage of discovery to add more and more features from observation to the tradi-
tional images of the world. But their works never look like mirrors in which any
odd comer of nature is reflected. They always bear the stamp of the intellect which
made them.
71. Greek sculptor at work .
Hellenistic gem in the Metropolitan
Museum, New York
CHAPTER 5 • WORLD CONQUERORS
Romans, Buddhists, Jews, and Christians, First to Fourth Century A.D.
72. A Roman Amphitheatre: the Colosseum in Rome , built about A.D. 80
W E have seen that Pompeii, which was a Roman town, contained many
reflections of Hellenistic art. For art remained more or less unchanged
while the Romans conquered the world and founded their own empire
on the ruins of the Hellenistic kingdoms. Most artists who worked in Rome were
Greeks, and most Roman collectors bought works of the great Greek masters, or
copies of them. Nevertheless art did change, to some extent, when Rome became
mistress of the world. The artists were given new tasks and had to adapt their
methods accordingly. The most outstanding achievement of the Romans was
probably in civil engineering. We all know about their roads, aqueducts, their
public baths. Even the ruins of these buildings still look extremely impressive. One
feels almost like an ant when walking in Rome between their enormous pillars. It
was, in fact, these ruins which made it impossible for later centuries to forget ‘the
grandeur that was Rome’.
The most famous of these Roman buildings is, perhaps, the huge arena known
as the Colosseum (Fig. 72). It is a characteristic Roman building, which excited
much admiration in later days. On the whole it is a utilitarian structure, with three
storeys of arches, one above the other, to support the seats of the vast amphitheatre
8o
World Conquerors
73. Interior of the Pantheon in Rome , built about A.D. 130. After a painting by the
eighteenth-century painter g. p. p a n n i n i. Private Collection
inside. But, in front of these arches, the Roman architect has put a kind of screen
of Greek forms. Indeed, he has applied all the three styles of building used for
Greek temples. The ground floor is a variation on the Doric style — even the metopes
and triglyphs are preserved; the second storey has Ionic, and the third and fourth
Corinthian half-columns. This combination of Roman structures with Greek forms
or ‘orders’ had an enormous influence on later architects. If we look round in our
own towns we may easily see examples of this influence.
The feature of the Colosseum which is new is the use of arches in architecture.
The Romans, in fact, made ample use of this invention which had played little or no
World Conquerors
81
part in Greek buildings though it may
have been known to Greek architects. To
construct an arch out of separate wedge-
formed stones is quite a difficult feat of
engineering. Once this art is mastered the
builder can use it for increasingly bold
designs. He can span the pillars of a bridge
or of an aqueduct, or he can even make use
of this device for constructing a vaulted
roof.The Romans became great experts in
the art of vaulting by various technical
devices. The most wonderful of these
buildings is the Pantheon or temple of all
gods. It is the only temple of classical
antiquity which is still a place of worship
— it was converted into a church in the
early Christian era and was therefore |
never allowed to fall into ruin. Its interior 74- The Emperor Vespasianus. Bust over life-
(Fig. 73) isahugeroundhallwitha vaulted size> about AD ' 7 °' Naples ’ Museo Nazionale
roof and a circular opening at the top through which one sees the open sky. There
is no other window, but the whole room receives ample and even light from above.
I know few buildings which convey a similar impression of serene harmony. There is
no feeling of heaviness. The enormous dome seems to hover freely over you like a
second dome of heaven.
It was typical of the Romans to take from Greek architecture what they liked,
and to apply it to their own needs. They did the same in all fields. One of their
principal needs was for good lifelike portraits. Such portraits had played a part in
the early religion of the Romans. It had been customary to carry wax images of
ancestors in funeral processions. There is little doubt that this usage had been
connected with the same belief that the likeness preserves the soul, as in ancient
Egypt. Later, when Rome became an empire, the bust of the emperor was still
looked upon with religious awe. We know that every Roman had to bum incense in
front of this bust in token of his loyalty and allegiance, and we know that the
persecution of Christians began because of their refusal to comply with this demand.
The strange thing is that, despite this solemn significance of portraits, the Romans
allowed their artists to make them more lifelike and uncomplimentary than anything
the Greeks had attempted. Perhaps they sometimes used death-masks and thus
acquired their astounding knowledge of the structure and features of the human
head. At any rate, we know Pompey, Augustus, Nero, or Titus, almost as if we
had seen their faces in the newsreel. There is no flattery in the bust of Vespasianus
82 World Conquerors
75, The lower part of Trajan's column . Rome, dedicated a.d. 114
(Fig. 74)— nothing to mark him out as a god. He might be any wealthy banker or
owner of a shipping line. Nevertheless, there is nothing petty in these Roman por-
traits. Somehow the artists succeeded in being lifelike without being trivial.
Another new task which the Romans set the artist revived a custom which we
know from the ancient Orient (p. 47, Fig. 43). They, too, wanted to proclaim their
76. Portrait of a man. From a mummy found at Hawara (Egypt), painted about A.D. 150.
London, National Gallery
77* Head of Buddha . Found in Gandhara (northern India), made about third century a.d.
London, Indian Museum
World Conquerors 85
victories and to tell the story of their campaigns. T rajan, for instance, erected a huge
column to show a whole picture chronicle of his wars and victories in Dacia (the
modem Roumania). There we see the Roman legionaries embarking, encamping
and fighting (Fig. 75). All the skill and achievements of centuries of Greek art were
used in these feats of war reporting. But the importance which the Romans attached
to an accurate rendering of all details, and to a clear narrative which would impress
the feats of the campaign on the stay-at-homes, rather changed the character of art.
The main aim was no longer that of harmony, beauty or dramatic expression. The
Romans were a matter-of-fact people, and cared less for fancy goods. Yet their
pictorial methods of telling the deeds of a hero proved of great value to the religions
which came into contact with their far-flung empire.
During the centuries after Christ, Hellenistic and Roman art completely displaced
the arts of the Oriental empires, even in their own strongholds. Egyptians still
buried their dead as mummies, but instead of adding their likenesses in the
78. Gautama (Btuidha), leaving his home. Relief found in Gandhara (northern India),
about second century A.n. Calcutta, Indian Museum
86 World Conquerors
Egyptian style, they had them painted by an artist who knew all the tricks of Greek
portraiture (Fig. 76). These portraits, which were certainly made by humble crafts-
men at a low price, still astonish us by their vigour and realism. There are few works
of ancient art which look so fresh and ‘modern’ as these.
The Egyptians were not the only ones to adapt the new methods of art to their
religious needs. Even in far-distant India, the Roman way of telling a story, and of
glorifying a hero, was adopted by artists who set themselves the task of illustrating
the story of a peaceful conquest, the story of Buddha.
The art of sculpture had flourished in India long before this Hellenistic influence
reached the country; but it was in the frontier region of Gandhara that the figure of
Buddha was first shown in the reliefs which became the model for later Buddhist art
(Fig. 78). We see the young Prince Gautama leaving the home of his parents to go
out into the wilderness. It is the ‘Great Renunciation’ of which the legend says:
After the prince had come down from his palace he thus addressed his favourite
charger Kanthaka : ‘My dear Kanthaka, please carry me once more for this one night.
When I shall have become Buddha with your help I shall bring salvation to the world
of gods and men.’ If Kanthaka had only so much as neighed or made a sound with the
hoofs the city would have been roused and the prince’s departure discovered. So the
gods muffled his voice and placed their hands under his hoofs wherever he stepped.
79- Moses striking water from the rock . Wall-painting from the synagogue in Dura-Europos
(Mesopotamia), painted between a.d. 245 and 256
World Conquerors 87
Greek and Roman art which had taught man to visualize gods and heroes in
beautiful form also helped the Indians to create an image of their saviour. The first
statues of Buddha with their expression of deep repose were also made in this
frontier region of Gandhara (Fig. 77).
Yet another Oriental religion that learned to represent its sacred stories for the
instruction of believers was the Jewish religion. Jewish Law actually forbade the
making of images for fear of idolatry. Nevertheless, the Jewish colonies in eastern
towns took to decorating the walls of their synagogues with stories from the Old
Testament. One of these paintings was discovered fairly recently in a small Roman
garrison in Mesopotamia called Dura-Europos. It is not a great work of art by any
means, but it is an interesting document from the third century a.d. The very fact
that the form seems clumsy and that the scene looks rather flat and primitive is not
without interest (Fig. 79). It represents Moses, striking water from the rock. But
it is not so much an illustration of the biblical account as an explanation, in pictures,
of its significance to the Jewish people. That may be the reason why Moses is
represented as a tall figure standing in front of the Holy Tabernacle in which we
can still discern the seven-branched candlestick. In order to signify that each
tribe of Israel received its share of the miraculous water the artist has shown
twelve rivulets each flowing to a small figure standing before a tent. The artist was
doubtless not very skilful, and that accounts for some of these features. But perhaps
he was not really much concerned with drawing lifelike figures. The more lifelike
they were the more they sinned against the Commandment forbidding images. His
main intention was to remind the beholder of the occasions when God had mani-
fested His power. The humble wall-painting from the Jewish synagogue is of
interest to us, because similar considerations began to influence art when the
Christian religion spread from the East and also took art into its service.
When Christian artists were first called upon to represent the Saviour and His
apostles it was again the tradition of Greek art which came to their aid. Fig. 80
shows one of the earliest representations of Christ, from the fourth century a.d.
Instead of the bearded figure to which we have become accustomed through later
illustrations, we see Christ in youthful beauty, enthroned between St. Peter and
St. Paul who look like dignified Greek philosophers. There is one detail, in particu-
lar, which reminds us how closely such a representation is still linked with the
methods of pagan Hellenistic art: To indicate that Christ is throning above the
heavens the sculptor has made His feet rest on the canopy of the firmament, held
aloft by the ancient god of the sky.
The origins of Christian art go even farther back than this example, but the
earliest monuments never show Christ Himself.
The Jews of Dura had painted scenes from the Old Testament in their
synagogue, not so much to adorn it but rather to tell the sacred tale in visible
8 1 . The Three Men in the Fiery F«rwact\\Vall-painting from the Priscilla Catacomb, Rome,
probably third century A.D.
World Conquerors 89
form. The artists who were first called upon to
paint images for Christian places of burial —
the Roman catacombs — acted very much in
the same spirit. Paintings such as those of the
‘Three Men in the Fiery Furnace’ (Fig. 81)
probably from the third century a.d., show
that these artists were familiar with the methods
of Hellenistic painting used in Pompeii. They
were quite capable of conjuring up the idea of
a human figure with a few rough strokes of the
brush. But we also feel that these effects and
tricks did not interest them very much. The
picture no longer existed as a beautiful thing
in its own right. Its main purpose was to
remind the faithful of one of the examples of*
God’s mercy and power. We read in the Bible
(Daniel iii.) of three high Jewish officials under
King Nebuchadnezzar who refused to fall down
and worship on a given signal when a gigantic
golden image of the King was set up in the plain
of Dura in the province of Babylon. Like so
many Christians of the period when these paint-
ings were made, they had to pay the penalty for
their refusal. They were thrown into a fiery
furnace ‘in their coats, their hosen and their
hats’. But, lo, the fire had no power upon their
bodies ‘nor was an hair of their heads singed,
neither were their coats changed’. The Lord
‘sent His angel and delivered His servants’.
We need only imagine what the master of the
Laocoon (p. 75, Fig. 68) would have made of
such a subject to realize the different direction
art was taking.The painter in the catacombs did
not want to represent a dramatic scene for its
own sake. To present the consoling and inspiring example of fortitude and salvation it
was quite sufficient if the three men in their Persian dress, the flames and the dove —
a symbol of Divine help — were recognizable. Everything which was not strictly rele-
vant was better left out. Once more ideas of clarity and simplicity began to outweigh
ideals of faithful imitation. Yet there is something touching in the very effort which
the artist made to tell his story as clearly and simply as possible. These three men.
82. Portrait of an official from
AphrodPias. About a.d. 400.
Istambul, Museum
90 World Conquerors
seen from in front, looking at the beholder, their hands raised in prayer, seem to show
that mankind had begun to concern itself with other things besides earthly beauty.
It is not only in religious works of the period of the decline and fall of the Roman
Empire that we can detect something of that shifting of interest. Few artists seemed
to care much for what had been the glory of Greek art, its refinement and harmony.
Sculptors no longer had the patience to work marble with a chisel, and to treat it
with that delicacy and taste which had been the pride of the Greek craftsmen. Like
the painter of the catacomb picture, they used more rough-and-ready methods,
such as, for instance, a mechanical drill with which to mark the principal features
of a face or a body. It has often been said that ancient art declined in these years,
and it is certainly true that many secrets of the best period were lost in the general
turmoil of wars, revolts and invasions. But we have seen that this loss in skill is not
the whole story. The point is that artists at this time seemed no longer satisfied with
the mere virtuosity of the Hellenistic period, and tried to achieve new effects. Some
of the portraits of this period, the fourth and fifth centuries A.D., in particular, show
perhaps most clearly what it was these artists aimed at (Fig. 82). To a Greek of the
time of Praxiteles these works would have looked crude and barbaric. Indeed, the
heads are not beautiful by any common standards. A Roman, used to the striking
likenesses of portraits such as that of Vespasian, might have dismissed them as
poor workmanship. And yet, to us, these figures seem to have a life of their own,
and a very intense expression which is due to the firm marking of the features and
the care bestowed on such traits as the part around the eyes and the furrows of the
brow. They portray the people who witnessed, and finally accepted, the rise of
Christianity, which meant the end of the ancient world.
83. A painter of funeral portraits' in his workshop sitting by his paintbox and easel ,
From a painted sarcophagus found in the Crimea, about a.d. ioo
chapter 6 • A PARTING OF WAYS
Rome and Byzantium , Fifth to Thirteenth Century A.D.
84. An early Christian Basilica: S. A pollinate in Classe , Ravenna, built about A.D. 530
W HEN, in the year A.D. 31 1, the Emperor Constantine established the
Christian Church as a power in the State, the problems with which it saw
itself confronted were enormous. During the periods of persecution
there had been no need, and indeed no possibility, of building public places of
worship. The churches and assembly halls that did exist were small and incon-
spicuous. But once the Church had become the greatest power in the realm, its
whole relationship to art had to be reconsidered. The places of worship could not be
modelled on the ancient temples, for their function was entirely different. The
interior of the temple was usually only a small shrine for the statue of the god. Pro-
cessions and sacrifices took place outside. The church, on the other hand, had to
find room for the whole congregation that assembled for service when the priest
read Mass at the high altar, or delivered his sermon. Thus it came about that
churches were not modelled on pagan temples, but on the type of large assembly
92 A Parting of Ways
halls which had been known in classical times under the name of ‘basilicas’,
which means roughly ‘royal halls’.These buildings were used as covered market-halls
and public law-courts, and mainly consisted of large oblong halls with narrower,
lower compartments on the longer sides, divided from the main hall by rows
of columns. At the far end there was often room for a semicircular dais
(or apse) where the chairman of the meeting, or the judge, could take his
seat. The mother of the Emperor Constantine erected such a basilica to
serve as a church, and so the term established itself for churches of this type.
The semicircular niche or apse would be used for the high altar, towards
which the eyes of the worshippers were directed. This part of the building,
where the altar stood, came to be known as the choir. The main central hall,
where the congregation assembled, was known later as the nave, which really
means ‘ship’, while the lower compartments at the side were called side-aisles,
which means ‘wings’. In most of the basilicas, the lofty nave was simply roofed
with timber, and the beams of the loft were visible. The side-aisles were often
flat-roofed. The columns that separated the nave from the aisles were often
sumptuously decorated. None of the earliest basilicas has remained quite un-
changed, but, despite the alterations and renovations made in the course of the
1,500 years since that time, we can still form an idea of what these buildings
generally looked like (Fig. 84).
The question of how to decorate these basilicas was a much more difficult and
serious one, because here the whole issue of the image and its use in religion came
up again and caused very violent disputes. On one thing nearly all early Christians
were agreed: there must be no statues in the House of God. Statues were too much
like those graven images and heathen idols that were condemned in the Bible. To
place a figure of God, or of one of His saints, on the altar seemed altogether out of
the question. For how would the poor pagans who had just been converted to the
new faith grasp the difference between their old beliefs and the new message, if they
saw such statues in churches ? They might too easily have thought that such a statue
really ‘represents’ God, just as a statue by Pheidias was thought to represent Zeus.
Thus they might have found it even more difficult to grasp the message of the one
Almighty and Invisible God, in whose semblance we are made. But, although all
devout Christians objected to large lifelike statues, their ideas about paintings differed
a good deal. Some thought them useful because they helped to remind the congre-
gation of the teachings they had received, and kept the memory of these sacred
episodes alive. This view was mainly taken in the Latin, western part of the Roman
Empire. Pope Gregory the Great, who lived at the end of the sixth century a.d.,
took this line. He reminded the people who were against all paintings that many
members of the Church could neither read nor write, and that, for the purpose of
teaching them, these images were as useful as the pictures in a picture-book are for
85. Enthroned Madonna and Child. Probably painted in Constantinople about a . d . 1200
Washington, National Gallery of Art, Mellon Collection
86 . Christ as Ruler of the Universe , the Virgin and Child and Saints . Mosaics by Byzantine
artists in the apse of the Cathedral of Monreale, Sicily, about a.d. i 190
A Parting of Ways
95
87. The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. Mosaic from the Basilica of S. Apollinare Nuovo,
Ravenna, about a.d. 520
children. Tainting can do for the illiterate what writing does for those who can
read/ he said.
It was of immense importance for the history of art that such a great authority
had come out in favour of painting. His saying was to be quoted again and again
whenever people attacked the use of images in churches. But it is clear that the type
of art which was thus admitted was of a rather restricted kind. Gregory had, in
fact, the idea about art which, as we saw, generally prevailed at that time. If his
purpose was to be served, the story had to be told as clearly and simply as possible,
and anything that might divert attention from this main and sacred purpose should
be omitted. At first, artists still used the methods of story-telling that had been
developed by Roman art, but gradually they came to concentrate more and more
on what was strictly essential. Fig. 87 shows a work in which these principles have
been applied with greatest consistency. It comes from a basilica in Ravenna, then,
round about a.d. 500, a great seaport and the capital city on Italy’s east coast.
It illustrates the story from the Gospels in which Christ fed five thousand people
on five loaves and two fishes. A Hellenistic artist might have seized the opportunity
to portray a large crowd of people in a gay and dramatic scene. But the master
of these days chose a very different method. His work is not a painting done
with deft strokes of the brush — it is a mosaic, laboriously put together, of stone
F
96 A Parting of Ways
or glass cubes which yield deep, full colours and give to the church interior, covered
with such mosaics, an appearance of solemn splendour. The way in which the story
is told shows the spectator that something miraculous and sacred is happening. The
background is laid out with fragments of golden glass and on this gold background
no natural or realistic scene is enacted. The still and calm figure of Christ occupies
the centre of the picture. It is not the bearded Christ known to us, but the long-
haired young man as He lived in the imagination of the early Christians. He wears
a purple robe, and stretches out His arms in blessing on both sides, where stand
two apostles offering Him the bread and fishes in order that the miracle may be
accomplished. They carry the food with covered hands, as subjects bringing tribute
for their rulers used to do at that time. Indeed, the scene looks like a solemn cere-
mony. We see that the artist attached a deep significance to what he represented.
To him it was not only a strange miracle which had happened a few hundred years
before in Palestine. It was the symbol and token of Christ’s abiding power which
was embodied in the Church. That explains, or helps to explain, the way in which
Christ looks steadfastly at the beholder : It is he whom Christ will feed.
At first glance, such a picture looks rather stiff and rigid. There is nothing of the
mastery of movement and expression which was the pride of Greek art, and which
persisted until Roman times. The way in which the figures are planted in strict
frontal view may almost remind us of certain children’s drawings. And yet the
artist must have been very well acquainted with Greek art. He knew exactly how
to drape a cloak round a body so that the main joints should remain visible through
the folds. He knew how to mix stones of differing shades in his mosaic to convey
the colours of flesh or of the sky. He marked the shadows on the ground, and had
no difficulty in representing foreshortening. If the picture looks rather primitive to
us, it must be because the artist wanted to be simple. The Egyptian ideas about the
importance of clarity in the representation of all objects had returned with great
force because of the stress which the Church laid on clarity. But the forms which
the artists used in this new attempt were not the simple forms of primitive art, but
the developed forms of Greek painting. Thus Christian art of the Middle Ages
became a curious mixture of primitive and sophisticated methods. The power of
observation of nature, which we saw awakening in Greece about 500 b.c., was put
to sleep again about a.d. 500. Artists no longer checked their formulae against
reality. They no longer set out to make discoveries about how to represent a body, or
how to create the illusion of depth. But the discoveries which had been made were
never lost. Greek and Roman art provided an immense stock of figures standing,
sitting, bending down or falling. All these types could prove useful in the telling of a
story, and so they were assiduously copied and adapted to ever-new contexts. But
the purpose for which they were used was now so radically different that we cannot
be surprised that, superficially, the pictures betray little of their clasiscal origin.
A Parting of Ways 97
This question of the proper purpose of art in churches proved of immense
importance for the whole history of Europe. For it was one of the principal issues
on which the Eastern, Greek-speakiilg parts of the Roman Empire, whose capital
was Byzantium or Constantinople, refused to accept the lead of the Latin Pope.
One party there was against all images of a religious nature. They were called icono-
clasts or image smashers. In 745 they gained the upper hand and all religious art
was forbidden in the Eastern Church. But their opponents were even less in agree-
ment with Pope Gregory’s ideas. To them images were not just useful, they were
holy. The arguments with which they tried to justify this point of view were as
subtle as those used by the other party: ‘If God in His mercy could decide to reveal
Himself to mortal eyes in the human nature of Christ,’ they argued, ‘why should
He not also be willing to manifest Himself in visible images ? We do not worship
these images themselves as the pagans did. We worship God and the Saints through or
across their images.’ Whatever we may think of the logic of this plea, its importance
for the history of art was tremendous. For when this party had returned to power after
a century of repression the paintings in a church could no longer be regarded as mere
illustrations for the use of those who could not read. They were looked upon as
mysterious reflections of the supernatural world. The Eastern Church, therefore,
could no longer allow the artist to follow his fancy in these works. Surely it was not any
beautiful painting of a mother with her child that could be accepted as the true sacred
image or ‘icon’ of the Mother of God, but only types hallowed by an age-old tradition.
Thus, the Byzantines came to insist almost as strictly as the Egyptians on the
observance of traditions. But there were two sides to this question. By asking the
artist who painted sacred images to keep strictly to the ancient models, the Byzan-
tine Church helped to preserve the ideas and achievements of Greek art in the types
used for drapery, faces or gestures. If we look at a Byzantine altar-painting of the
Holy Virgin like Fig. 85, it may seem very remote from the achievements of Greek
art. And yet, the way the folds are draped round the body and radiate round the
elbows and knees, the method of modelling the face and hands by marking the
shadows, and even the sweep of the Virgin’s throne, would have been impossible
without the conquests of Greek and Hellenistic painting. Despite a certain rigidity,
Byzantine art therefore remained closer to nature than the art of the West in subse-
quent periods. On the other hand, the stress on tradition, and the necessity of
keeping to certain permitted ways of representing Christ or the Holy Virgin, made
it difficult for Byzantine artists to develop their personal gifts. But this conserva-
tivism developed only gradually, and it is wrong to imagine that the artists of the
period had no scope whatever. It was they, in fact, who transformed the simple
illustrations of early Christian art into great cycles of large and solemn images that
dominate the interior of Byzantine churches. As we look at the mosaics done by
these Greek artists in the Balkans and in Italy in the Middle Ages, we see that this
98 A Parting of Ways
Oriental empire had in fact succeeded in reviving something of the grandeur and
majesty of ancient Oriental art, and in using it for the glorification of Christ and His
power. Fig. 86 gives an idea of how impressive this art could be. It shows the apse
of the church of Monreale, in Sicily, which was decorated by Byzantine craftsmen
shortly before 1 190. Sicily itself belonged to the Western or Latin Church, which
accounts for the fact that among the Saints arrayed on each side of the window we
find the earliest representation of St. Thomas Becket, the news of whose murder
some twenty years earlier had resounded throughout Europe. But apart from this
choice of Saints the artists have kept close to their native Byzantine tradition. The
faithful assembled in the church would find themselves face to face with the
majestic figure of Christ, represented as the Ruler of the Universe, His right hand
raised in blessing. Below is the Holy Virgin, enthroned like an Empress, flanked
by two archangels and the solemn row of Saints.
Images such as these, looking down on us from the golden, glimmering walls,
seemed to be such perfect symbols of the Holy Truth that there appeared to be
no need ever to depart from them. Thus they continued to hold their sway in all
countries ruled by the Eastern Church. The holy images or ‘icons’ of the Russians
still reflect these great creations of Byzantine artists.
88 . Byzantine Iconoclast , whitewashing an image of Christ .
From the Chludow Psalter, a Byzantine manuscript
painted about a.d. 900. Moscow, Historical Museum
CHAPTER 7 • LOOKING EASTWARDS
Islam , China , Second to Thirteenth Century A.D.
89. An Islamic Palace: The Court of Lions in the Alhambra of Granada (Spain),
built in 1377
B EFORE we return to the Western world and take up the story of art in
. Europe, we must take at least a glance at what happened in other parts of the
world during these centuries of turmoil. It is interesting to see how two
other great religions reacted to the question of images, which so engaged the mind
of the Western world. The religion of the Middle East, which swept everything
before it in the seventh and eighth centuries a.d., the religion of the Mohammedan
90. The Persian Prince Humay meets the Chinese Princess Humayun in her garden .
From the Persian manuscript of a Romance, made about a.d. 1450
Paris, Mus£e des Arts Decoratifs
Looking Eastwards i o I
conquerors of Persia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa and Spain, was even more
rigorous in this matter than Christianity had been. The making of images was
forbidden. But art as such cannot so easily be suppressed, and the craftsmen of the
East, who were not permitted to represent human beings, let their imagination play
with patterns and forms. They created the most subtle lacework ornamentation
known as arabesques (Fig. 89). If today we admire the wealth of invention, the
balance and harmony in the colour-schemes of Oriental carpets (Fig. 93), we owe
this in the last analysis to Mohammed who directed the mind of the artist away
from the objects of the real world to this dream-world of lines and colours. Later
sects among the Mohammedans were less strict in their interpretation of the
ban on images. They did allow the painting of figures and illustrations as long
as they had no connexion with religion. The illustrating of romances, histories
and fables done in Persia from the fourteenth century onwards and later also
in India under Mohammedan (Mogul) rulers, shows how much the artists of
these lands had learned from the discipline which had confined them to the
designing of patterns. The moonlight scene in a garden (Fig. 90) from a Persian
romance of the fifteenth century is a perfect example of this wonderful skill. It looks
like a carpet which has somehow come to life in a fairy-tale world. There is as little
illusion of reality in it as in Byzantine art. Perhaps even less. There is no foreshort-
ening, and no attempt to show light and shade or the structure of the body. The
figures and plants look a little as if they had been cut out of coloured paper and
distributed over the page to make a perfect pattern. But, because of that, the illus-
tration fits even better into the book than it might have done if the artist had wanted
to create the illusion of a real scene. We can read such a page almost as we read a
text. We can look from the hero, as he stands with his arms crossed in the right-hand
comer, to the heroine who approaches him, and we can let our imagination wander
through the moonlit fairy garden without ever getting too much of it.
The impact of religion on art was even stronger in China. We know little about
the beginnings of Chinese art, except the fact that the Chinese had been skilled in
the art of casting bronze at a very early date, and that some of the bronze vessels
used in the ancient temples go back to the first millennium before Christ — some say
even earlier. Our records of Chinese painting and sculpture, however, are not so old.
In the centuries immediately before and after Christ, the Chinese adopted burial
customs somewhat reminiscent of the Egyptians, and in these burial chambers, as
in the Egyptian ones, there are a number of vivid scenes which reflect the life and
the habits of these long bygone days (Fig. 91). At that time, much of what we call
typically Chinese in art had already developed. The artists were less fond of
rigid angular forms than the Egyptians had been, and preferred swerving curves.
When a Chinese artist had to represent a prancing horse, he seemed to fit it together
out of a number of rounded shapes. We can see the same in Chinese sculpture.
102 Looking Eastwards
91. A Reception. Detail of a relief from the tomb of Wu-liang-tse in the Province of Shantung (China),
about a.d. 150
which always seems to twist and turn without, however, losing its solidity and
firmness (Fig. 92).
Some of the great teachers of China appear to have had a similar view of the value
of art to that held by Pope Gregory the Great. They thought of art as a means of
reminding people of the great examples of virtue in the golden ages of the past. One
of the earliest illustrated Chinese book-scrolls that have been preserved is a collec-
tion of great examples of virtuous ladies, written in the spirit of Confucious. It is said
to go back to the painter Ku K’ai-chi who lived in the fourth century A.D. The
illustration (Fig. 95) shows a husband unjustly accusing his wife, and it has all the
dignity and grace we connect with Chinese art. It is as clear in its gestures and
arrangement as one might expect from a picture which also aims at driving home a
lesson. It shows, moreover, that the Chinese artist had mastered the difficult art of
representing movement. There is nothing
rigid in this early Chinese work, because
the predilection for undulating lines im-
parts a sense of movement to the whole
picture.
But the most important impulse to
Chinese art probably came through yet
another religious influence: that of
Buddhism. The monks and ascetics of
Buddha’s circle were represented in
amazingly lifelike statues (Fig. 94). Once
more we see the curved outlines in the
92. Winged Lion t on the road to the tomb of
Prince Hsiao Hsiu, near Nanking, made
shortly after a.d. 500
94* Head of a Lohan y from a glazed statue found in I-chou, China, probably made about a.d. iooo.
Formerly Frankfurt, Fuld Collection
Looking Eastwards 105
shape of the ears, the lips or the cheeks, but they do not distort the real forms ; they only
weld them together. We feel that such a work is not haphazard, but that everything is
in its place and contributes to the effect of the whole. The old principle of the primitive
masks (Fig. 22) serves its turn even in such a convincing representation of a face.
Buddhism influenced Chinese art not only by providing the artists with new
tasks. It introduced an entirely new approach to pictures, a reverence for the artist’s
achievement such as did not exist either in ancient Greece or in Europe up to the
time of the Renaissance. The Chinese were the first people who did not think of the
making of pictures as a rather menial task, but who placed the painter on the same
level as the inspired poet. The religions of the East taught that nothing was more
important than the right kind of meditation. Meditation means something like
deep thought. To meditate is to think and ponder about the same holy truth
for many hours on end, to fix an idea in one’s mind and to look at it from all
sides without letting go of it. It is a kind of mental exercise for Orientals, to
which they used to attach even greater importance than we attach to physical
exercise or to sport. Some monks meditated on single words, turning them over in
their minds while they sat quite still for whole days and listened to the stillness
which preceded and followed the holy syllable. Others meditated on things in nature,
on water, for instance, and what we can learn from it, how humble it is, how it yields
95. Husband reproving his wife. Detail of a silk scroll, probably an old copy after a work
by ku k*ai-chi who died in a.d. 406. London, British Museum
106 Looking Eastwards
and yet wears away solid rock, how it is clear and cool and soothing and gives life to
the thirsting field; or on mountains, how strong and lordly they are, and yet how
good, for they allow the trees to grow on them. That is, perhaps, how religious art in
China came to be employed less for telling the legends of Buddha and the Chinese
teachers, less for the teaching of a particular doctrine — as Christian art was to be
employed in the Middle Ages — than as an aid to the practice of meditation. Devout
artists began to paint water and mountains in a spirit of reverence, not in order to
teach any particular lesson, nor merely as decorations, but to provide material for
deep thought. Their pictures on silk scrolls were kept in precious containers and only
unrolled in quiet moments, to be looked at and pondered over as one might open a
book of poetry and read and re-read a beautiful verse. That is the purpose behind
the greatest of the Chinese landscape paintings of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. It is not easy for us to recapture that mood, because we are fidgety
Europeans with little patience and little knowledge of the technique of medita-
tion — no more, I suppose, than the old
Chinese had of the technique of physical
training. But if we look long and carefully
at a picture such as Fig. 96, we shall
perhaps begin to feel something of the
spirit in which it was painted and of the
high purpose it was to serve.We must not,
of course, expect any portraits of real
landscapes, picture-postcards of beauty
spots. Chinese artists did not go out into
the open, to sit down in front of some
motif, and sketch it. They even learned
their art by a strange method of meditation
and concentration in which they first
acquired skill in ‘how to paint pine-trees’,
‘how to paint rocks’, ‘how to paint clouds’,
by studying not nature but the works of
renowned masters. Only when they had
thoroughly acquired this skill did they
travel and contemplate the beauty of
nature so as to capture the moods of the
landscape. When they came home they
would then try to recapture these moods
by putting together their images of pine-
trees, rocks and clouds much in the way
a poet might string together a number of
96. MA yuan : Landscape in moonlight .
Painting on silk, about a.d. i 200.
Chinese Government Collection
Looking Eastwards 1 07
images which had come into his mind during
a walk. It was the ambition of these Chinese
masters to acquire such a facility in the
handling of brush and ink that they could
write down their vision while their inspira-
tion was still fresh. Often they would write
a few lines of poetry and paint a picture on
the same scroll of silk. The Chinese,
therefore, consider it childish to look for
detailsinpictures and then to compare them
with the real world. They want, rather, to
find in them the visible traces of the artist’s
enthusiasm. It may not be easy for us to
appreciate the boldest of these works, such
as Fig. 97, which consists only of some
vague forms of mountain peaks emerging
out of clouds. But once we try to put our-
selves in the place of the painter, and to
experience something of the awe he must
have felt for these majestic peaks, we may
at least get an inkling of what the Chinese value most highly in art. For us
it is easier to admire the same skill and concentration in more familiar subjects.
The painting of three fishes in a pond (Fig. 98) gives an idea of the patient
observation that must have gone into the artist’s study of his simple subject, and
of the ease and mastery with which he handled it when he came to paint this pic-
ture. Again we see how fond the Chinese
artists were of graceful curves, and how
they could exploit their effects to give the
idea of movement. The forms do not seem
to make any clear symmetrical pattern.
They are not evenly distributed as in the
Persian miniature. Nevertheless we feel
that the artist has balanced them with
immense assurance. One can look at such
a picture for a long stretch of time without
getting bored. It is an experiment well
worth trying.
There is something wonderful in this
restraint of Chinese art, in its deliberate
limitation to a few simple motifs of nature.
98. Fishes. Leaf from an album. Probably
painted by Liu ts*ai between a.d. 1300 and
1400. Pennsylvania Museum of Art
97. kao k’o-kung: Landscape after rain.
A.D. 1250-1300. Chinese Government
108 Looking Eastwards
But it almost goes without saying that this approach to painting also had its dangers.
As time went on, nearly every type of brushstroke with which a stem of bamboo or
a rugged rock could be painted was laid down and labelled by tradition and so great
was the general admiration for the works of the past that artists dared less and less
to rely on their own inspiration. The standards of painting remained very high
throughout the subsequent centuries both in China and in Japan (which adopted the
Chinese conceptions) but art became more and more like a graceful and elaborate
game which has lost much of its interest as so many of its moves are known. It was
only after a new contact with the achievements of Western art m the eighteenth
century that Japanese artists dared to apply the Eastern methods to new subjects.
We shall see how fruitful these new experiments also became for the West when it
first got to know them.
99» A Japanese boy painting a branch of bamboo Coloured woodcut by hidenobUj
probably early nineteenth century
chapter 8 WESTERN ART IN THE MELTING POT
Europe , Sixth to Eleventh Century A.D.
ioo. A Saxon Tower imitating a timber structure:
the church of Earls Barton , Northamptonshire,
built about a.d. iooo
W E have taken the story of Western art up to the period of Constantine,
and to the centuries in which it was to adapt itself to the precept of
Pope Gregory the Great that images are useful for teaching laymen
the sacred word. The period which followed this early Christian era, the period
after the collapse of the Roman Empire, is generally known by the uncomplimentary
title of the Dark Ages. We call these ages dark, partly to convey that the people who
lived during these centuries of migrations, wars and upheavals, were themselves
no
Western Art in the Melting Pot
plunged in darkness and had
little knowledge to guide them,
but also to imply that we our-
selves know rather little about
these confused and confusing
centuries which followed upon
the decline of the ancient world
and preceded the emergence of
the European countries in the
shape, roughly, in which we
know them now. There are, of
course, no fixed limits to the
period, but for our purpose we
may say that it lasted almost
five hundred years — approxi-
mately from a.d. 500 to A.D.
1000. Five hundred years is a
long time, in which much can
happen and much, in fact, did
happen. But what is most in-
teresting to us is that these
101. A Dragon's Head. Wood carving found at Oseberg years did not see the emergence
(Norway). About a.d. 820. Oslo, University Museum 0 f any one c j ear ai fo uniform
style, but rather the conflict of
a great number of different styles, which only began to come to terms towards the end
of that period.To those who know something of the history of the Dark Ages this is
hardly surprising. It was not only a dark, it was a patchy period, with tremendous
differences among various peoples and classes. Throughout these five centuries there
existed men and women, particularly in the monasteries and convents, who loved
learning and art, and who had a great admiration for those works of the ancient world
which had been preserved in libraries and treasure-houses. Sometimes these learned
and educated monks or clergy held positions of power and influence at the courts of
the mighty, and tried to revive the arts which they most admired. But frequently their
work came to naught because of new wars and invasions by armed raiders from the
north, whose opinions about art were very different indeed. The various Teutonic
tribes, the Goths, the Vandals, the Saxons, the Danes and the Vikings, who swept
through Europe raiding and pillaging, were considered barbarians by those who
valued Greek and Roman achievements in literature and art. In a sense they certainly
were barbarians, but this need not mean that they had no feeling for beauty, no art
of their own. They had skilled craftsmen experienced in finely wrought metalwork.
Ill
Western Art in the Melting Pot
and excellent wood-carvers, comparable to those of the New Zealand Maoris (p. 25,
Fig. 23). They loved complicated patterns which included the twisted bodies of
dragons, or birds mysteriously interlaced. We do not know exactly where these
patterns originated in the seventh century of what they signified, but it is not
unlikely that the ideas of these Teutonic tribes about art resembled the ideas of
primitive tribes elsewhere. There are reasons for believing that they, too, thought
of such images as a means of working magic and exorcizing evil spirits. The carved
figures of dragons from Viking sledges and ships give a good idea of the character of
this art (Figs. 101-102). One can well imagine that these threatening heads of
monsters were something more than just innocent decorations. In fact, we know that
there were laws among the Norwegian Vikings which required the captain of a ship
to remove these figures before entering his home port, ‘so as not to frighten the
spirits of the land’.
The monks and missionaries of Celtic Ireland and Saxon England tried to apply
the traditions of these northern craftsmen to the tasks of Christian art. The most
amazing monuments to their success are some of the manuscripts made in England
and Ireland during the seventh and eighth centuries. Fig. 103 is a page from the
famous Lindisfarne Gospel, made in Northumbria shortly before A.D.700. It shows
the Cross composed of an incredibly rich lacework of intertwined dragons or
102. A ‘ Longship 9 of the Viking type with dragons' heads , as used by the Normans m the Invasion
of England, from the Bayeux Tapestry, made about a.d. 1180. Baycux, Cathedral
1 12 Western Art in the Melting Pot
103. Page of the Lindisfarnc Gospel , probably painted shortly before a.d. 700.
London a British Museum
serpents, standing against a background of an even more complicated pattern.
It is exciting to try to find one’s way through this bewildering maze of twisted
shapes, and to follow the coils of these interwoven bodies. It is even more astonish-
ing to see that the result is not confusion, but that the various patterns strictly
correspond to each other and form a complex harmony of design and colour. One
can hardly imagine how anyone could have thought out such a scheme and had the
patience and perseverance to finish it. It proves, if proof were needed, that the
104- St. Luke. From a Gospel manuscript,
painted about a.d. 750. St. Gallen,
Stiftsbibliothek
Western Art in the Melting Pot 113
artists who took up this native tradition
were certainly not lacking in skill or
technique.
It is all the more surprising to look at
the way in which human figures were
represented by these artists in the illumi-
nated manuscripts of England and Ireland.
They do not look quite like human figures
but rather like strange patterns made of
human forms (Fig. 104). One can see that
the artist used some example he had found
in an old Bible, and transformed it to suit
his taste. He changed the folds of the dress
to something like interlacing ribbons, the
locks of hair and even the ears into scrolls,
and turned the whole face into a rigid mask.
These figures of evangelists and saints look
almost as stiff and quaint as primitive idols.
They show that the artists who had grown
up in the traditions of their native art found it difficult to adapt themselves to
the new requirements of Christian books. Yet it would be wrong to look upon
such pictures as being merely childish. The training of hand and eye which the
artists had received, and which enabled them to make a beautiful pattern on
the page, helped them to bring a new element into Western art. Without this
influence. Western art might have developed on similar lines to those of the art
of Byzantium. Thanks to the clash of the two traditions, the classical tradition and
the taste of the native artists, something entirely new began to grow up in Western
Europe.
For the knowledge of the earlier achievements of classical art was by no means
lost altogether At the court of Charlemagne^ who regarded himself as the successor
of the Roman Emperors, the tradition of Roman craftsmanship was eagerly revived.
The church that Charles had built about a.d. 800 at his residence in Aix-la-Chapelle
(Fig. 105) is a rather close copy of a famous church that had been built in Ravenna
some three hundred years earlier.
We have seen before that our modern notion that an artist must be ‘original’
was by no means shared by most peoples of the past. An Egyptian, a Chinese or a
Byzantine master would have been greatly puzzled by such a demand. Nor would
a medieval artist of Western Europe have understood why he should invent new
ways of planning a church, of designing a chalice or of representing the sacred story
where the old ones served their purpose so well. The pious donor who wanted to
1 14 Western Art in the Melting Pot
dedicate a new shrine for a holy relic of his
patron saint, not only tried to procure the
most precious material he could afford, he
would also seek to provide the master with
an old and venerable example of how the
legend of the saint should be correctly
represented. Nor would the artist feel ham-
pered by this type of commission. There
remained enough scope for him to show
whether he was a master or a bungler.
Perhaps we can best understand this
attitude if we think of our own approach
to music. If we ask a musician to perform
at a wedding we do not expect him to
compose something new for the occasion,
any more than the medieval patron expected
a new invention if he asked for a painting
of the Nativity. We indicate the type of
music we want and the size of the orchestra
or choir we may be able to afford. It still
remains up to the musician to produce a wonderful performance of an ancient
masterpiece or to make a mess of things. And just as two equally great musicians
may interpret the same piece very differently, so two great medieval masters
might make very different works of art of the same theme and even of the same
ancient model. An example should make this clear:
Fig. 106 shows a page from a Bible produced at the court of Charlemagne. It
represents the figure of St. Matthew writing the gospel. It had been customary in
Greek and Roman books to have the portrait of the author represented on the
opening page and this picture of the writing evangelist must be an extraordinarily
faithful copy of this type of portrait. The way the saint is draped in his toga in the
best classical fashion, the way his head is modelled in many shades of light and
colour, convinces us that the medieval artist had strained every nerve to give an
accurate and worthy rendering of a venerated model.
The painter of another manuscript of the ninth century (Fig. 107) probably had
before him the same or a very similar ancient example from early Christian times.
We can compare the hands, the left hand holding an inkhom and resting on the
lectern, the right hand holding the pen; we can compare the feet and even the
drapery round the knees. But while the artist of Fig. 106 had done his very best to
copy the original as faithfully as possible, the artist of Fig. 107 must have aimed at a
different interpretation. Perhaps he did not want to represent the evangelist like any
105. Interior of the Minster of Aix-la-Chapelle,
consecrated in a.d. 805
Western Art in the Melting Pot
115
107. St. Matthew. From a Gospel manuscript,
probably painted at Rheims, about a.d. 830.
fipernay. Municipal Library
serene old scholar, sitting quietly in his study. To him St. Matthew was an inspired
man, writing down the Word of God. It was an immensely important and im-
mensely exciting event in the history of mankind that he wanted to portray, and he
succeeded in conveying something of his own sense of awe and excitement in this
figure of a writing man. It is not mere clumsiness and ignorance which made him
draw the saint with wide open, protruding eyes and enormous hands. He intended to
give him that expression of tense concentration. The very brushwork of the drapery
and of the background looks as if it had been done in a mood of intense excitement.
This impression, I think, is partly due to the evident enjoyment with which the artist
seized on every opportunity to draw scrolly lines and zigzagging folds. There may
have been something in the original to suggest such a treatment, but it probably
appealed to the medieval artist because it reminded him of those interlaced ribbons
and lines which had been the greatest achievement of northern art. In pictures like
these we see the emergence of a new medieval style which made it possible for art to
do something that neither ancient Oriental nor classical art had done: the Egyptians
had largely drawn what they knew to exist, the Greeks what they saw ; in the Middle
Ages the artist also learned to express in his picture what he felt.
One cannot do justice to any medieval work of art without keeping this purpose in
mind. For these artists were not out to create a convincing likeness of nature or to
make beautiful things — they wanted to convey to their brothers in the faith the
content and the message of the sacred story. And in this they were perhaps more
successful than most artists of earlier or later times. Fig. 108 shows part of a bronze
Ii6 Western Art in the Melting Pot
108. Adam and Eve after the Fall. From the bronze doors of Hildesheim Cathedral,
completed in a.d. 1015
door which was commissioned for the German church of Hildesheim shortly after
the year a.d. iooo. It shows the Lord approaching Adam and Eve after the fall.
There is nothing in this relief that does not strictly belong to the story. But this
concentration on the things which matter makes the figures stand out all the more
clearly against the plain background — and we can almost read off what their gestures
say: God points to Adam, Adam to Eve, and Eve to the serpent on the ground. The
shifting of guilt and the origin of evil is expressed with such forcefulness and clarity
that we soon forget that the proportions of the figures are perhaps not strictly
correct and the bodies of Adam and Eve not beautiful by our standards.
We need not imagine, though, that all art in this period existed exclusively to
serve religious ideas. Not only churches were built in the Middle Ages, but castles
as well, and the barons and feudal lords to whom the castles belonged also occasion-
ally employed artists. The reason why we are inclined to forget these works when
we speak of the art of the earlier Middle Ages is simple : castles were often destroyed
when churches were spared. Religious art was, on the whole, treated with greater
respect, and looked after more carefully, than mere decorations of private apart-
ments. When these became old-fashioned they were removed or thrown away — just
as happens nowadays. But, fortunately, one great example of this latter type of art
has come down to us — and that because it was preserved in a church. It is the
famous Bayeux Tapestry, which illustrates the story of the Norman Conquest. We
do not know exactly when this tapestry was made, but most scholars agree that it
109- 1 io. King Harold swears an Oath to Duke William of Normandy , after which he returns to England.
From the Bayeux Tapestry, made about a.d. 1080. Bayeux Cathedral
Ii8 Western Art in the Melting Pot
was within living memory of the scenes it illustrates — perhaps round about the year
1080. The tapestry is a picture-chronicle of the kind we know from ancient Oriental
and Roman art — the story of a campaign and a victory. It tells its story with
wonderful liveliness. On Fig. 109 we see, as the inscription tells us, how Harold
swears his oath to William and on Fig. 1 10 how he returns to England. Nothing could
be clearer than the way in which the story is told — we see William on his throne
watching Harold laying his hand on the sacred relics to swear allegiance — it was
this oath which served William as pretext for his claims on England. I particularly
like the man on the balcony in the next scene, who holds his hands above his eyes
to espy Harold’s ship as it arrives from afar. It is true that his arms and fingers look
rather quaint and that all the figures in the story are strange little mannikins which
are not drawn with the assurance of the Assyrian or Roman chroniclers. When the
medieval artist of this period had no model to copy, he drew rather like a child. It is
easy to smile at him, but by no means so easy to do what he did. He tells the epic
with such an economy of means, and with such concentration on what seemed
important to him, that the final result is possibly more impressive than the accounts
of our own war reporters and newsreel men.
in- A Monk ( Frater Rufillus ) writitg the letter R (his table
with colours and his pen-knife beside him). From an early
thirteenth-century manuscript. Sigmaringen, Library
chapter 9 • THE CHURCH MILITANT
The Twelfth Century
1 12 .A Romanesque Church : Remnants of the Benedictine church of Murbach, Alsace.
Built about 1 160
D ATE S are indispensable pegs on which to hang the tapestry of history, and,
I since everybody knows the date 1066, that may serve us as a convenient
peg. No complete buildings have survived in England from the Saxon
period, and there are very few churches of the period before that date still existing
anywhere in Europe. But the Normans who landed in England brought with them
120 The Church Militant
a developed style of building, which had taken shape within their generation in
Normandy and elsewhere. The bishops and nobles who were the new feudal lords
of England soon began to assert their power by founding abbeys and minsters.
The style in which these buildings were erected is known as the Norman style in
England, and as the Romanesque style on the Continent. It flourished for a hundred
years and more after the Norman invasion.
Today it is not easy to imagine what a church meant to the people of that period.
Only in some old villages in the countryside can we still get a glimpse of its im-
portance. The church was often the only stone building anywhere in the neighbour-
hood; it was the only considerable structure for miles around, and its steeple was
a landmark to all who approached from afar. On Sundays and during services all the
inhabitants of the town might meet there, and the contrast between the lofty
building with its paintings and carvings and the primitive and humble dwellings in
which these people spent their lives must have been overwhelming. Small wonder
that the whole community was interested in the building of these churches and took
pride in their decoration. Even from the economic point of view the building of a
minster, which took years, must have transformed a whole town. The quarrying
and transport of stone, the erection of suitable scaffolding, the employment of
itinerant craftsmen who brought tales from distant lands, all this was a real event
in these far-off days.
The Dark Ages had by no means blotted out the memory of the first churches,
the basilicas, and the forms which the Romans had used in their buildings. The
ground-plan was usually the same — a central nave leading to an apse or choir, and
two or four aisles at the side. Sometimes this simple plan was enriched by a number
of additions. Some architects liked the idea of building churches in the form of a
cross, and they thus added what is called a transept between the choir and the nave.
The general impression made by these Norman or Romanesque churches is never-
theless very different from that of the old basilicas. In the earliest basilicas classical
columns carrying straight ‘entablatures’ had been used. In Romanesque and
Norman churches we generally find round arches resting on massive piers. The
whole impression which these churches make, both inside and outside, is one of
massive strength. There are few decorations, even few windows, but firm unbroken
walls and towers which remind one of medieval fastnesses (Fig. 1 12). These powerful
and almost defiant piles of stone erected by the Church in lands of peasants and
warriors who had only recently been converted from their heathen way of life seem
to express the very idea of the Church Militant — the idea, that is, that here on earth
it is the task of the Church to fight the powers of darkness till the hour of triumph
dawns on doomsday.
There was one problem in connexion with the building of churches that engaged
the minds of all good architects. It was the task of giving these impressive
1 13. The Fish vomits out Jonah upon the dry land. Detail of a stained-glass window
in Cologne Cathedral. About 1280
1 14. The church in the medieval city : the cathedral of Journal (Belgium),
the nave completed in 1171, the towers probably in 1213
The Church Militant
123
stone buildings a worthy roof of stone.
The timber roofs which had been usual
for basilicas lacked dignity, and were
dangerous because they easily caught fire.
The Roman art of vaulting such large
buildings demanded a great amount of
technical knowledge and calculation which
had largely been lost. Thus the eleventh
and twelfth centuries became a period of
ceaseless experiment. It was no small
matter to span the whole breadth of the
main nave by a vault. The simplest solu-
tion, it would seem, was to bridge the
distance as one throws a bridge across a
river. Tremendous pillars were built up
on both sides, which were to carry the
girders of those bridges. But it soon be-
came clear that a vault of this kind had
to be very firmly joined if it were not to
crash, and that the weight of the necessary
stones was extremely great. To carry this
enormous load the walls and pillars had to be made even stronger and more
massive. Huge masses of stone were needed for these early ‘tunnel’-vaults.
Norman architects therefore began to try out a different method. They saw that
it was not really necessary to make the whole roof so heavy. It was sufficient to have
a number of firm girders spanning the distance and to fill in the intervals with
lighter material. It was found that the best method of doing this was by spanning
the girders or ‘ribs’ crosswise between the pillars and then filling in the triangular
sections between them. This idea, which was soon to revolutionize building methods,
can be traced as far back as the Norman cathedral of Durham, though the architect
who, soon after the Conquest, designed the first ‘rib-vault’ for its mighty interior
(Fig. 1 15) was hardly aware of its technical possibilities.
It was in France that Romanesque churches began to be decorated with sculptures.
Actually the word ‘decorate’ is rather misleading. Everything that belonged to the
church had its definite function and must express a definite idea connected with the
teaching of the Church. The porch of the late twelfth-century church of S t. T rophime
at Arles, in southern France, is one of the most complete examples of this style
(Fig. 1 1 6). It shows in the field above the lintel — called tympanum — Christ in His
glory, surrounded by the symbols of the Four Evangelists. These symbols, the lion
for St. Mark, the angel for St. Matthew, the ox for St. Luke and the eagle for
H
1 15. A Norman Interior: Durham Cathedral.
Built between 1093 and 1128 (the vault
completed later after the original design)
The Church Militant
125
St. John, were derived from the Bible. In the Old Testament we read of the vision
of Ezekiel (Ez. i. 4-12), in which he describes the throne of the Lord, carried by
four creatures with the heads of a man, of a lion, an ox and an eagle.
Christian theologians thought this passage meant the four evangelists, and such a
vision was a fitting subject for the entrance to the church. On the lintel below we
see twelve sitting figures, the twelve apostles, and we can discern, on Christ’s left, a
row of naked figures in chains — they are lost souls being dragged off to hell — while
on Christ’s right we see the blessed, their faces turned towards Him in eternal bliss.
Below, we see the rigid figures of saints, each marked by his emblem, reminding
the faithful of those who can intercede for them when their souls stand before the
ultimate Judge. Thus the teachings of the Church about the final goal of our life
here below were embodied in these sculptures on the portal of the church. These
images lived on in the minds of the people even more powerfully than did the words
of the preacher’s sermon. A late medieval French poet, Francois Villon, has
described this effect in the moving verses he wrote for his mother:
I am a woman, poor and old,
Quite ignorant, I cannot read
They showed me by my village church
A painted Paradise with harps
And Hell where the damned souls are boiled.
One gives me joy, the other frightens me . . .
We must not expect such sculptures to look as natural, graceful and light as
classical works. They are all the more impressive because of their massive solemnity.
It becomes much easier to see at a glance what is represented, and they fit in much
better with the grandeur of the building (Fig. 117).
Every detail inside the church was just as carefully thought out to fit its purpose
and its message. Fig. 118 shows a candlestick made for Gloucester Cathedral about
the year mo. The intertwined monsters and dragons of which it is formed
remind us of the work of the Dark Ages (p. 1 10, Fig. 101 and p. 112, Fig. t03). But
now a more definite meaning is given to these uncanny shapes. A Latin inscription
round its crown says roughly : ‘This bearer of light is the work of virtue — with its
shine it preaches the doctrine, so that man should not be darkened by vice’. And
really, as we penetrate with our eyes into the jungle of strange creatures we not
only find once more (round the knob in the middle) the symbols of the Evangelists
who stand for the doctrine but also naked figures of men. Like Laocoon and his
sons (p. 75, Fig. 68) they are assailed by snakes and monsters; but theirs is not a
hopeless struggle. ‘The light that shineth in the darkness’ can make them triumph
over the power of evil.
The font of a church in Liege (Belgium), made about 1x13, provides another
example of the part taken by the theologians in advising the artists (Fig. 119). It is
n8. Candlestick of gilt bell metal . Made for Gloucester Cathedral, between 1104 and 1113.
London, Victoria and Albert Museum
The Church Militant
127
1 19. rkiner van HUY: Brass Font, St. Bartholomew, Liege (Belgium), between 1107 and 1118
made of brass and shows in the middle a relief of the baptism of Christ — the most
appropriate subject for a font. There are Latin inscriptions explaining the meaning
of every figure; for instance, we read ‘Angelis ministrantes’ (ministering angels)
over the two figures waiting at the side of the River Jordan to receive Christ. But it
is not only these inscriptions that underline the importance attached to the meaning
of every detail. Again, the whole font was given such a meaning. Even the figures of
oxen on which it stands are not there merely for the sake of ornament or decoration.
We read in the Bible (2 Chronicles iv.) how King Solomon engaged a cunning work-
man from Tyre in Phoenicia who was an expert in brass foundry. Among the things
he made for the temple in Jerusalem the Bible describes:
‘A molten sea of ten cubits from brim to brim, round in compass. ... It stood
upon twelve oxen, three looking towards the north and three looking towards the
west and three looking towards the south and three looking towards the east: and
the sea was set upon them and all their hinder parts were inward.’
It was this sacred model, then, which the artist of Liege, another expert in brass
foundry, was asked to keep in mind two thousand years or more after the time
of Solomon.
128
The Church Militant
The forms which the artist uses for his
images of Christ, of the angels and of St.
John, look more natural and at the same
time more calm and majestic than those of
the Dark Ages. We remember that the
twelfth century is the century of the
Crusades.There was naturally more contact
than formerly with the art of Byzantium,
and many artists of the twelfth century tried
to imitate and emulate the majestic sacred
images of the Eastern Church.
At no other time, in fact, did European
art approach the ideals of this kind of East-
ern art more closely than at the height of
the Romanesque style. We have seen the
rigid and solemn arrangement of the sculp-
tures of Arles (Figs. 116-117), and we see
120. The Annunciation. From a Swabian
Gospel manuscript, about 1150. the same spirit in many illuminated manu-
Stuttgart, Landesbibliothck scripts of the twelfth century. Fig. 120, for
instance, represents the Annunciation. It looks almost as stiff and motionless as an
Egyptian relief. The Virgin is seen from in front, her hands raised as in astonish-
ment, while the dove of the Holy Spirit descends on her from on high. The Angel
is seen half in profile, his right hand extended in a gesture which in medieval art
signifies the act of speaking. If, looking at such a page, we expect a vivid illustration
of a real scene, we may well find it disappointing. But if we remember once more
that the artist was not concerned with an imitation of natural forms, but rather with
the arrangement of traditional sacred symbols which were all he needed to illustrate
the mystery of the Annunciation, we shall no longer feel the lack of what he never
intended to give us.
For we must realize how great the possibilities were that opened up before the
artists as soon as they finally discarded all ambition to represent things as we see
them. Fig. 121 shows a page from a calendar for the use of a German monastery. It
marks the principal feasts of saints to be commemorated in the month of October,
but, unlike our own calendars, it marks them not only in words but also by illustra-
tions. In the middle, under the arches, we see St. Willimarus the priest and St. Gall
with the Bishop’s crozier and a companion who carries the luggage of the wandering
missionary. The curious pictures on top and below illustrate the story of two
martyrdoms which are remembered in October. In later times, when art had
returned to the detailed representation of nature, such cruel scenes were often
painted with a profusion of horrible detail. Our artist was able to avoid all this. To
12 1. Saints Gere on, Willimarus, Gall and the Martyrdom of St. Ursula zvith her
10,000 Maidens . From a Calendar manuscript made between 1137 and 1147.
Stuttgart, Landcsbibliothek
The Church Militant
130
remind us of St. Gereon and his companions whose heads were cut off and thrown
into a well, he arranged the beheaded trunks in a neat circle around the image of
the well. St. Ursula who, according to the legend, had been massacred with her ten
thousand maidens by the heathens, is seen throning, literally surrounded by her
followers. An ugly savage with bow and arrows and a man brandishing his sword
are placed outside the frame and aiming at the Saint. We are able to read the story
off the page without being forced to visualize it. And as the artist could dispense
with any illusion of space or any dramatic action he could arrange his figures and
forms on purely ornamental lines. Painting was indeed on the way to becoming a
form of writing in pictures ; but this return to more simplified methods of repre-
sentation gave the artist of the Middle Ages a new freedom to experiment with
more complex forms of composition (com-position=putting together). Without
these methods the teachings of the Church could never have been translated into
visible shapes.
As with forms so with colours. As the artists no longer felt obliged to study and
imitate the real gradations of shades that occur in nature they were free to choose
any colour they liked for their illustrations. The bright gold and luminous blues of
their goldsmiths’ works, the intense colours of their book illuminations, the glowing
red and deep greens of their stained-glass windows (p. 121, Fig. 113) show that
these masters put their independence of nature to good use. It was this freedom
from the need to imitate the natural world that was to enable them to convey the
idea of the supernatural.
122. Artists at work at a manuscript and a
panel painting. From the pattern book of
Reun Monastery, made about 1200.
Vienna, Nationalbibliothek
chapter io THE CHURCH TRIUMPHANT
The Thirteenth Century
123. A Gothic cathedral: Notre Dame of Paris.
Built from 1163 to 1250
W E have just compared the art of the Romanesque period with the art
of Byzantium and even of the ancient Orient. But there is one respect
in which Western Europe always differed profoundly from the East. In
the East these styles lasted for thousands of years, and there seemed no reason why
they should ever change. The West never knew this immobility. It was always rest-
less, groping for new solutions and new ideas. The Romanesque style did not even
outlast the twelfth century. Hardly had the artists succeeded in vaulting their
churches and arranging their statues in the new and majestic manner, when a new
idea made all these Norman and Romanesque churches look clumsy and obsolete.
This new idea was born in northern France. It was the principle of the Gothic style.
At first one might call it mainly a technical invention, but in its effect it became much
more. It was the discovery that the method of vaulting a church by means of
crosswise girders could be developed much more consistently and to much greater
132 The Church Triumphant
purpose than the Norman architects had dreamt of. If it was true that pillars were
sufficient to carry the girders of the vaulting between which the other stones were
held as mere filling, then all the massive walls between the pillars were really super-
fluous. It was possible to erect a kind of scaffolding of stone which held the whole
building together. All that was needed were slim pillars and narrow ‘ribs’. Anything
in between could be left out without danger of the scaffolding collapsing. There was
no need for heavy stone walls — instead one could put in large windows. It became
the ideal of architects to build churches almost in the manner in which we build
greenhouses. Only they had no steel frames or iron girders — they had to make them
of stone, and that needed a great amount of careful calculation. Provided, however,
that the calculation was correct, it was possible to build a church of an entirely new
kind; a building of stone and glass such as the world had never seen before. This is
the leading idea of the Gothic cathedrals, which was developed in northern France
in the second half of the twelfth century.
Of course, the principle of crosswise girders alone was not sufficient for this
revolutionary style of Gothic building. A number of other technical inventions were
necessary to make the miracle possible. The round arches of the Romanesque style,
for instance, were unsuited to the aims of the Gothic builders. The reason is this :
if I am given the task of bridging the gap between two pillars with a semicircular
arch, there is only one way of doing it. The vaulting will always reach one particular
height, no more and no less. If I wanted to reach higher I should have to make the
arch steeper. The best thing, in this case, is not to have a rounded arch at all, but
to fit two segments together. That is the idea of the pointed arch. Its great advantage
is that it can be varied at will, made flatter or more pointed according to the require-
ments of the structure.
There was one more thing to be considered. The heavy stones of the vaulting
press not only downwards but also sideways, much like a bow which has been
drawn. Here, too, the pointed arch was an improvement over the round one, but
even so pillars alone were not sufficient to withstand this outward pressure. Strong
frames were needed to keep the whole structure in shape. In the vaulted side-aisles
this did not prove very difficult. Buttresses could be built outside. But what could
be done with the high nave ? This had to be kept in shape from outside, across the
roofs of the aisles. To do that, the builders had to introduce their ‘flying buttresses’,
which complete the scaffolding of the Gothic vault (Fig. 124). A Gothic church
seems to be suspended between these slender structures of stone like a bicycle
wheel between its flimsy spokes. In both cases it is the even distribution of weight
that makes it possible to reduce the material needed for the construction more and
more without endangering the firmness of the whole.
It would be wrong, however, to look at these churches mainly as feats of
engineering. The artists saw to it that we feel and enjoy the boldness of their design.
The Church Triumphant 133
124. Notre Dame of Paris from the air . A view showing the cross form of the building
and the ‘flying buttresses’
Looking at a Doric temple (p. 49, Fig. 45) we feel the function of the row of
columns which carry the load of the horizontal roof. Standing inside a Gothic
cathedral (Fig. 125) we are made to understand the complex interplay of thrust and
pull that holds the lofty vault in its place. There are no blank walls or massive pillars
anywhere. The whole interior seems to be woven out of thin shafts and ribs; their
network covers the vault, and runs down along the walls of the nave to be gathered
up by the pillars which are formed by a bundle of stone rods. Even the windows
are overspread by these interlacing lines known as tracery (Fig. 126).
134 The Church Triumphant
The great cathedrals, the Bishops’ own
churches (cathedra=Bishop’s throne), of
the late twelfth and early thirteenth century
were mostly conceived on such a bold and
magnificent scale that few if any were ever
completed exactly as planned. But even so,
and after the many alterations which they
have undergone in the course of time, it
remains an unforgettable experience to
enter these vast interiors whose very di-
mensions seem to dwarf anything that is
merely human and petty. We can hardly
imagine the impression which these build-
ings must have made on those who had
only known the heavy and grim structures
of the Romanesque style. These older
churches in their strength and power may
have conveyed something of the ‘church
militant’ that offered shelter against the
onslaught of evil. The new cathedrals gave
the faithful a glimpse of a different world.
They would have heard in sermons and hymns of the Heavenly Jerusalem with
its gates of pearl, its priceless jewels, its streets of pure gold and transparent
glass (Revelation xxi). Now this vision had descended from heaven to earth.
The walls of these buildings were not cold and forbidding. They were formed
of stained glass that shone like precious stone. The pillars, ribs and tracery were
glistening with gold. Everything that was heavy, earthly or humdrum was elimi-
nated. The faithful who surrendered himself to the contemplation of all this
beauty could feel that he had come nearer to understanding the mysteries of a
realm beyond the reach of matter.
Even as seen from afar these miraculous buildings seemed to proclaim the glories
of heaven. The facade of Notre Dame in Paris is perhaps the most perfect of them
all (Fig. 1 23). So lucid and effortless is the arrangement of the porches and windows,
so lithe and graceful the tracery of the gallery that we forget the weight of this pile
of stone and the whole structure seems to rise up before us like a mirage.
There is a similar feeling of lightness and weightlessness in the sculptures that
flank the porches like heavenly hosts. While the Romanesque master of Arles
(p. 124, Fig. 1 17) made his figures of saints look like solid pillars firmly fitted into the
architectural framework, the master who worked for the northern porch of the
Gothic cathedral of Chartres (Fig. 127) made each of his figures come to life. They
125. A Gothic interior: the cathedral of
Amiens. The nave built by Robert
de luzarches, 1218-36, the apse
completed in 1247
126. Gothic church windows: the choir of Cologne Cathedral begun in 1248.
(The wall-paintings are nineteenth-century restorations)
136
The Church Triumphant
127. Melchisedeky Abraham and Moses. From the porch of the northern transept
of Chartres Cathedral. Probably begun in 1194
seem to move, and look at each other solemnly, and the flow of their drapery
indicates once more that there is a body underneath. Each of them is clearly marked,
and should have been recognizable to anyone who knew his Old Testament. We
have no difficulty in recognizing Abraham, the old man with his son Isaac held
The Church Triumphant 137
before him ready to be sacrificed. We can also recognize Moses, because he holds
the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed, and the column with
the brazen serpent by which he cured the Israelites. The man on the other side
of Abraham is Melchisedek, King of Salem, of whom we read in the Bible
(Genesis xiv. 18) that he was ‘A priest of the most high God’ and that he ‘brought
forth bread and wine’ to welcome Abraham after a successful battle. In medieval
theology he was therefore considered the model of the priest who administers the
sacraments, and that is why he is marked by a chalice and the censer of the priest. In
this way nearly every one of the figures that crowd the porches of the great Gothic
cathedrals is clearly marked by an emblem so that its meaning and message could be
understood and pondered by the faithful. Taken together they form as complete an
embodiment of the teachings of the Church as the works discussed in the preceding
chapter. And yet we feel that the Gothic sculptor has approached his task in a new
spirit. To him these statues are not only sacred symbols, solemn reminders of a
moral truth. Each of them must have been for him a figure in its own right, different
from its neighbour in its attitude and type of beauty and each imbued with an
individual dignity.
The cathedral of Chartres still largely belonged to the late twelfth century. After
the year 1200 many new and magnificent cathedrals sprang up in France and
also in the neighbouring countries, in England, in Spain and in the German Rhine-
land. Many of the masters busy on the new sites had learned their craft while
working on the first buildings of this kind, but they all tried to add to the achieve-
ments of their elders.
Fig. 128, from the early thirteenth-century Gothic cathedral of Strasbourg, shows
the entirely new approach of these Gothic sculptors. It represents the death of the
Virgin. The twelve apostles surround her bed, St. Mary Magdalene kneels before
her. Christ, in the middle, is receiving the Virgin’s soul into His arms. We see that
the artist was still anxious to preserve something of the solemn symmetry of the
early period. We can imagine that he sketched out the group beforehand to
arrange the heads of the apostles around the arch, the two apostles at the bedside
corresponding to each other, and the figure of Christ in the centre. But he was no
longer content with a purely symmetrical arrangement such as the twelfth-century
master of p. 129, Fig. 12 1, preferred. He clearly wanted to breathe life into his figures.
We can see the expression of mourning in the beautiful faces of the apostles, with
their raised eyebrows and their intent look. Three of them lift their hands to their
faces in the traditional gesture of grief. Even more expressive are the face and figure
of St. Mary Magdalene, who cowers at the bedside and wrings her hands, and it is
marvellous how the artist succeeded in contrasting her features with the serene and
blissful look on the face of the Virgin. The draperies are no longer the empty husks
and purely ornamental scrolls we see on early medieval work. The Gothic artists
138 The Church Triumphant
128. The Death of the Virgin. From the porch of the southern transept
of Strasbourg Cathedral. About 1230
wanted to understand the ancient formula for draped bodies, which had been handed
down to them. Perhaps they turned for enlightenment to the remnants of pagan
stonework, Roman tombstones and triumphal arches, of which several could be seen
in France. Thus they regained the lost classical art of letting the structure of the body
show under the folds of the drapery. Our artist, in fact, is proud of his ability to
handle this difficult technique. The way in which the Virgin’s feet and hands, and
the hand of Christ appear under the cloth, show that these Gothic sculptors were no
longer interested only in what they represented, but also in the problems of how to
represent. Once more, as in the time of the great awakening in Greece, they began
to look at nature, not so much to copy it as to learn from it how to make a figure
look convincing. Yet there is a vast difference between Greek art and Gothic art,
between the art of the temple and that of the cathedral. The Greek artists of the
fifth century were mainly interested in how to build up the image of a beautiful
body .To the Gothic artist all these methods and tricks were only a means to an end,
which was to tell his sacred story more movingly and more convincingly. He does
not tell it for its own sake, but for the sake of its message, and for the solace and
edification the faithful could derive from it. The attitude of Christ as He looks at
the dying Virgin was clearly more important to the artist than skilful rendering
of muscles.
129- Ekkehart and Uta. From the series of ‘Founders’ in the
choir of Naumburg Cathedral. About 1260
In the course of the thirteenth century, some artists went even further in their
attempts to make the stone come to life. The sculptor who was given the task of
representing the founders of the Naumburg Cathedral in Germany, round about
1260, almost convinces us that he portrayed actual knights of his time (Fig. 129).
It is not very likely that he really did — these founders had been dead many years,
and were nothing but a name to him. But his statues of men and women seem to
have come to life under his hands. They look immensely energetic and vigorous —
the true contemporaries of Simon of Montfort.
I
140
The Church Triumphant
130. The Entombment of Christ . From a Psalter manuscript from Bonmont.
Probably painted between 1250 and 1300.
Besan9on 3 Bibliotheque Municipalc
To work for cathedrals was the main task of the northern sculptors of the
thirteenth century. The most frequent task of the northern painters of that time
was the illumination of manuscripts, but the spirit of these illustrations was very
different from that of the solemn Romanesque book pages. If we compare the
‘Annunciation’ from the twelfth century (p. 128, Fig. 120) with a page from a
thirteenth-century Psalter (Fig. 130) we gain a measure of this change. It shows
the entombment of Christ, similar in subject and in spirit to the relief from Stras-
bourg Cathedral (Fig. 128). Once more we see how important it has become to the
artist to show us the feeling of his figures. The Virgin bends over the dead body of
Christ and embraces it, while St. John wrings his hands in grief. As in the relief, we
see what oains the artist took to fit his scene into a regular pattern: the angels in the
The Church Triumphant 141
top comers coming out of the clouds with censers in their hands, and the servants
with their strange pointed hats — such as were worn by the Jews in the Middle
Ages — supporting the body of Christ. This expression of intense feeling, and this
regular distribution of the figures on the page, were obviously more important to the
artist than any attempt to make his figures lifelike, or to represent a real scene. He
does not mind that the servants are much smaller than the holy personages, and he
does not give us any indication of the place or the setting. We understand what is
happening without any such external indications. Though it was not the artist’s aim
to represent things as we see them in reality, his knowledge of the human body, like
that of the Strasbourg master, was nevertheless infinitely greater than that of the
painter of the twelfth-century miniature. These thirteenth-century artists were no
longer content to copy models from pattern books and adapt them to their use.
Although they respected the traditional forms in which a sacred story was to be
told, they took pride in making it more moving and more lifelike.
It was in the thirteenth century that artists did occasionally abandon their pattern
book altogether, in order to represent something because it interested them. We can
hardly imagine today what this meant. We think of an artist as a person with a
sketchbook who sits down and makes a drawing from life whenever he feels inclined.
But we know that the whole training and upbringing of the medieval artist was very
different. He started by being apprenticed to a master, whom he assisted at first by
carrying out his instructions and filling in relatively unimportant parts of a picture.
Gradually he would learn how to represent an apostle, and how to draw the Holy
Virgin. He would learn to copy and rearrange scenes from old books, and fit them
into different frames, and he would finally acquire enough facility in all this to be
able even to illustrate a scene for which he knew no pattern. But never in his career
would he be faced with the necessity of taking a sketchbook and drawing something
from life. Even when he was asked to represent a particular person, the ruling king
or a bishop, he would not make what we should call a likeness. There were no
portraits as we understand them in the Middle Ages. All the artists did was to draw
a conventional figure and to give it the insignia of office — a crown and sceptre for the
king, a mitre and crozier for the bishop — and perhaps write the name underneath so
that there could be no mistake. It may seem strange to us that artists who were able
to make such lifelike figures as the Naumburg founders (Fig. 129) should have found
it difficult to make a likeness of a particular person. But the whole idea of sitting
down in front of a person or an object and copying it was alien to them. It is all the
more remarkable that, on certain occasions, artists in the thirteenth century did in
fact draw something from life. They did it when they had no conventional pattern
on which they could rely. Fig. 13 1 shows such an exception. It is the picture of an
elephant drawn by the English historian Matthew Paris in the middle of the
thirteenth century. This elephant had been sent by St. Louis, King of France, to
The Church Triumphant
Henry III in 1255. It was the first that had
been seen in England. The figure of the
servant by its side is not a very convincing
likeness, though we are given his name,
Henricus de Flor. But what is interesting is
that in this case the artist was very anxious
to get the right proportion. Between the
legs of the elephant there is a Latin inscrip-
tion saying: ‘By the size of the man
portrayed here you may imagine the size
of the beast represented here’. To us this
elephant may look a little queer, but it does
show, I think, that medieval artists, at least in the thirteenth century, were very well
aware of such things as proportions, and that, if they ignored them so often, they
did so not out of ignorance but simply because they did not think they mattered.
In the thirteenth century, the time of the great cathedrals, France was the richest
and most important country in Europe. The University of Paris was the intellectual
centre of the Western world. In Italy, which was much disunited, the ideas and
methods of the great French cathedral builders, which had been so eagerly imitated
in Germany and England, did not at first meet with much response.
131. MATTHEW PARIS: An elephant and
its keeper. Drawn in 1255. Cambridge,
Corpus Christi College
132. Nicola pisano: Annunciation , Nativity and Shepherds. From the marble pulpit
of the Baptistery in Pisa. Completed in 1260
The Church Triumphant 143
It was only in the second half of the thirteenth century that an Italian sculptor
began to emulate the example of the French masters and to study the methods of
classical sculpture in order to represent nature more convincingly. This artist was
Nicola Pisano who worked in the great seaport and trading centre of Pisa. Fig. 132
shows one of the reliefs of a pulpit he completed in 1260. At first it is not quite easy
to see what subject is represented because Pisano followed the medieval practice
of combining various stories within one frame. Thus the left corner of the relief is
taken up with the group of the Annunciation and the middle with the Birth of
Christ. The Virgin is lying on a bedstead, St. Joseph is crouching in a corner, and
two servants are engaged in bathing the Child. They seem to be jostled about by a
herd of sheep, but these really belong to a third scene — the story of the Annuncia-
tion to the Shepherds which is represented in the right-hand corner where the
Christ-child appears once more in the manger. But if the scene appears a little
crowded and confusing the sculptor has nevertheless contrived to give each episode
its proper place and its vivid details. One can see how he enjoyed such touches of
observation as the goat in the right-hand corner scratching its head with its hoof,
and one realizes how much he owed to the study of classical sculpture when one
looks at his treatment of garments and folds. Like the master of Strasbourg who
worked a generation before him (Fig. 128), or like the master of Naumburg who
may have been about his age, Nicola Pisano had learned the methods of the
ancients to show the forms of the body under the drapery and to make his figures
look both dignified and convincing.
Italian painters were even slower than Italian sculptors in responding to the new
spirit of the Gothic masters. Italian cities such as Venice were in close contact with
the Byzantine Empire and Italian craftsmen looked to Constantinople rather than
to Paris for inspiration and guidance. In the thirteenth century Italian churches
were still decorated with solemn mosaics in the ‘Greek manner’.
It might have seemed as if this adherence to the conservative style of the East
would prevent all change, and indeed the change was long delayed. But when it came,
towards the end of the thirteenth century, it was this firm grounding in the Byzan-
tine tradition which enabled Italian art not only to catch up with the achievements
of the northern cathedral sculptors but to revolutionize the whole art of painting.
We must not forget that the sculptor who aims at reproducing nature has an easier
task than the painter who sets himself a similar aim. The sculptor need not worry
about creating an illusion of depth through foreshortening or through modelling in
light and shade. His statue stands in real space and in real light. Thus the sculptors
of Strasbourg or Naumburg could reach a degree of lifelikeness which no thirteenth-
century painting could match. For we remember that northern painting had given
up all pretence of creating an illusion of reality. Its principles of arrangement and
of story-telling were governed by quite different aims.
144 Th e Church Triumphant
It was Byzantine art that ultimately allowed the Italians to leap the barrier that
separates sculpture from painting. For all its rigidity Byzantine art had preserved
more of the discoveries of the Hellenistic painters than had survived the picture-
writing of the dark ages in the West.We remember how many of these achievements
still lay hidden, as it were, under the frozen solemnity of a Byzantine painting like
p. 93, Fig. 85 j how the face is modelled in light and shade and how the throne and
the footstool show a correct understanding of the principles of foreshortening.
With methods of this kind a genius who broke the spell of Byzantine conservatism
could venture out into a new world and translate the lifelike figures of Gothic
sculpture into painting. This genius Italian art found in the Florentine painter
Giotto di Bondone (i266?-i337).
It is usual to start a new chapter with Giotto ; the Italians were convinced that an
entirely new epoch of art had begun with the appearance of that great painter. We
shall see that they were right. But for all that, it may be useful to remember that in
real history there are no new chapters and no new beginnings and that it detracts
nothing from Giotto’s greatness if we realize that his methods owe much to the
Byzantine masters, and his aims and outlook to the great sculptors of the northern
cathedrals.
Giotto’s most famous works are wall-paintings or frescoes (so called because they
must be painted on the wall while the plaster is still fresh , that is, wet). In or about
the year 1306 he covered the walls of a small church in Padua in northern Italy with
stories from the life of the Virgin and of Christ. Underneath he painted personifica-
tions of virtues and vices such as had sometimes been placed on the porches of
northern cathedrals.
Fig. 133 shows Giotto’s figure of Faith, a matron with a cross in one hand, a
scroll in the other. It is easy to see the similarity of this noble figure to the works of
the Gothic sculptors. But this is no statue. It is a painting which gives the illusion of
a statue in the round. We see the foreshortening of the arm, the modelling of the
face and neck, the deep shadows in the flowing folds of the drapery. Nothing like
this had been done for a thousand years. Giotto had rediscovered the art of creating
the illusion of depth on a flat surface.
For Giotto this discovery was not only a trick to be displayed for its own sake.
It enabled him to change the whole conception of painting. Instead of using the
methods of picture writing he could create the illusion as if the sacred story were
happening before our very eyes. For this it was no longer sufficient to look at older
representations of the same scene and adapt these time-honoured models to a new
use. He rather followed the advice of the friars who exhorted the people in their
sermons to visualize in their mind, when reading the Bible and the legends of the
Saints, what it must have looked like when a carpenter’s family fled to Egypt or
when the Lord was nailed to the cross. He did not rest till he had thought it all out
146
The Church Triumphant
134. giotto: The Mourning of Christ . Wall-painting in the Cappella delP Arena in Padua.
Probably completed in 1306
afresh: how would a man stand, how would he act, how would he move, if he took
part in such an event ? Moreover, how would such a gesture or movement present
itself to our eyes ?
We can best gauge the extent of this revolution if we compare one of Giotto’s
frescoes from Padua (Fig. 134) with a similar theme in the thirteenth-century
miniature in Fig. 130. The subject is the mourning over the dead body of Christ,
with the Virgin embracing her son for the last time. In the miniature, as we
remember, the artist was not interested in representing the scene as it might have
happened. He varied the size of the figures so as to fit them well into the page, and
if we try to imagine the space between the figures in the foreground and St. John in
the background — with Christ and the Virgin in between — we realize how every-
thing is squeezed together, and how little the artist cared about space. It is the
same indifference to the real place where the scene is happening which led Nicola
Pisano to represent different episodes within one frame. Giotto’s method is com-
pletely different. Painting, for him, is more than a substitute for the written word
The Church Triumphant 147
135. Detail of Fig. 134
We seem to witness the real event as if it were enacted on a stage. Compare the con-
ventional gesture of the mourning St. John in the miniature with the passionate
movement of St. John in Giotto’s painting as he bends forward, his arms extended
sideways. If we try here to imagine the distance between the cowering figures in the
foreground and St. John, we immediately fed that there is air and space between
them, and that they can all move.These figures in the foreground show how entirely
new Giotto’s art was in every respect. We remember that early Christian art had
reverted to the old Oriental idea that to tell a story clearly every figure had to be
shown completely, almost as was done in Egyptian art. Giotto abandoned these ideas.
He did not need such simple devices. He shows us so convincingly how each figure
reflects the grief of the tragic scene that we sense the same grief in the cowering
figures whose faces are hidden from us.
148 The Church Triumphant
Giotto’s fame spread far and wide. The people of Florence were proud of him.
They were interested in his life, and told anecdotes about his wit and dexterity.
This, too, was rather a new thing. Nothing quite like it had happened before. Of
course, there had been masters who had enjoyed general esteem, and been recom-
mended from monastery to monastery, or from bishop to bishop. But, on the whole,
people did not think it necessary to preserve the names of these masters for posterity.
They thought of them as we think of a good cabinet-maker or tailor. Even the artists
themselves were not much interested in acquiring fame or notoriety. Very often
they did not even sign their work. We do not know the names of the masters who
made the sculptures of Chartres, of Strasbourg or Naumburg. No doubt they were
appreciated in their time, but they gave the honour to the cathedral for which they
worked. In this respect too, the Florentine painter Giotto begins an entirely new
chapter in the history of art. From his day onwards the history of art, first in Italy
and then in other countries also, is the history of the great artists.
136. The King and his architect ( with compass and rider) visiting the building site of a cathedral
(King Offa at St. Albans). From an English manuscript of the Life of St. Alban
probably painted by matthew Paris about 1260. Dublin, Trinity College
CHAPTER II • COURTIERS AND BURGHERS
The Fourteenth Century
137. The 6 decorated * style: the zvest front of Exeter Cathedral. About 1350-1400
T HE thirteenth century had been the century of the great cathedrals, in which
nearly all branches of art had their share. Work on these immense enter-
prises continued into the fourteenth century and even beyond, but they were
no longer the main focus of art. We must remember that the world had changed a
great deal during that period. In the middle of the twelfth century, when the Gothic
style was first developed, Europe was still a thinly populated continent of peasants
with monasteries and barons’ castles as the main centres of power and learning. The
ambition of the great Bishops’ Sees to have mighty cathedrals of their own was the
first indication of an awakening civic pride of the towns. But a hundred and fifty
years later these towns had grown into teeming centres of trade whose burghers felt
increasingly independent of the power of the Church and the feudal lords. Even the
nobles no longer lived a life of grim seclusion in their fortified manors, but moved
150 Courtiers and Burghers
to the cities with their comfort and fashionable luxury there to display their wealth
atthe courts of the mighty. We cangetavery vivid idea of what life in the fourteenth
century was like if we remember the works of Chaucer, with his knights and squires,
friars and artisans. This was no longer the world of the Crusades, and of those
paragons of chivalry, which we remember when looking at the founders of Naum-
burg (Fig. 129). It is never safe to generalize too much about periods and styles.
There are always exceptions and examples which would not fit any such generaliza-
tion. But, with that reservation, we may say that the taste of the fourteenth century
was rather for the refined than for the grand.
This is exemplified in the architecture of the period. In England we distinguish
between the pure Gothic style of the early cathedrals, which is known as Early
English, and the later development of these forms, known as the Decorated Style.
The name indicates the change of taste. The Gothic builders of the fourteenth
century were no longer content with the clear majestic outline of the earlier cathe-
drals. They liked to show their skill in decoration and in complicated tracery. The
west window of Exeter Cathedral is a typical example of this style (Fig. 137).
Churches were no longer the main tasks of the architects. In the growing and
prosperous cities many secular buildings had to be designed — town halls, guild halls,
colleges, palaces, bridges and city gates. One of the most celebrated and characteristic
138. The Palace of the Doges of Venice. Begun in 1309
I 5 I
Courtiers and Burghers
buildings of this kind is the Ducal
Palace of Venice (Fig. 138), which
was begun in the fourteenth cen-
tury, when the power and prosper-
ity of that city were at their height.
It shows that this later develop-
ment of the Gothic style, for all
its delight in ornament and tracery,
could yet achieve its own effect of
grandeur.
The most characteristic works of
sculpture in the fourteenth century
are perhaps not those of stone,
which were made in great numbers
for the churches of the period, but
rather the smaller works of precious
metal or ivory, in which the crafts-
men of the period excelled. Fig. 139
shows a little silver statue of the
Virgin made by a French goldsmith
in 1339. Works of this kind were
not intended for public worship.
Rather were they to be placed into
a palace chapel for private prayer.
They are not meant to proclaim a
truth in solemn aloofness, like the
statues of the great cathedrals, but
to excite love and tenderness. The
Paris goldsmith was thinking of the
Virgin as of a real mother, and of
Christ as a real child, thrusting His
hand at His mother’s face. He took
care to avoid any impression of
rigidity. That is why he gave the
figure the slight bend — she rests her arm on her hip to support the child, while
the head is bent towards Him. Thus the whole body seems slightly to sway in a gentle
curve, very much like an S, and Gothic artists of the period were very fond of this
motif. In fact the artist who made this statue probably did not invent either the
peculiar posture of Our Lady, or the motif of the child playing with her. In such
things he was following the general trend of fashion. His own contribution lay in
r-r
- ' Ll™ 1 rm.jK ' ,"
139. The Virgin. Silver statue dedicated by
Joan of Evreux in 1339. Paris, Louvre
152 Courtiers and Burghers
the exquisite finish of every detail, the beauty of the hands, the little creases in the
baby’s arms, the wonderful surface of silver and enamel, and, last but not least, the
exact proportion of the statue, with its small and graceful head on a long and slender
body. There is nothing haphazard in these works of the great Gothic craftsmen.
Such details as the drapery falling over the right arm show the infinite care the
artist has taken to compose it into graceful and melodious lines. We can never do
these works justice if we just pass them by in our museums, and devote no more
than a quick glance to them. They were made to be appreciated by real connoisseurs,
and treasured as pieces worthy of devotion.
The love of fourteenth-century painters for graceful and delicate details is seen in
such famous illustrated manuscripts as the English Psalter known as ‘Queen Mary’s
Psalter’. Fig. 140 shows Christ in the Temple, conversing with the learned scribes.
They have put Him on a high chair, and He is seen explaining some point of doctrine
with the characteristic gesture used by medieval artists when they wanted to draw
a teacher. The Jewish scribes raise their hands in attitudes of awe and astonishment,
and so do Christ’s parents, who are just coming on to the scene, looking at each other
wonderingly. The method of telling the story is still rather unreal. The artist has
evidently not yet heard of Giotto’s discovery of the way in which to stage a scene
so as to give it life. Christ, who was twelve at the time, as the Bible tells us, is
minute in comparison with the grown-ups, and there is no attempt on the part of the
artist to give us any idea of the space between the figures. Moreover we can see that
all the faces are more or less drawn according to one simple formula, with the
curved eyebrows, the mouth drawn downwards and the curly hair and beard. It is
all the more surprising to look down the same page and to see that another scene
has been added, which has nothing to do with the sacred text. It is a theme from the
daily life of the time, the hunting of ducks with a hawk. Much to the delight of
the man and woman on horseback, and of the boy in front of them, the hawk has
just got hold of a duck, while two others are flying away. The artist may not have
looked at real twelve-year-old boys when he painted the scene above, but he had
undoubtedly looked at real hawks and ducks when he painted the scene below.
Perhaps he had too much reverence for the biblical narrative to bring his observa-
tion of actual life into it. He preferred to keep the two things apart: the clear
symbolic way of telling a story with easily readable gestures and no distracting
details, and, on the margin of the page, the piece from real life, which reminds us
once more that this is Chaucer’s century. It was only in the course of the fourteenth
century that the two elements of this art, the graceful narrative and the faithful
observation were gradually fused. Perhaps this would not have happened so soon
without the influence of Italian art.
In Italy, particularly in Florence, the art of Giotto had changed the whole idea
of painting. The old Byzantine manner suddenly seemed stiff and outmoded.
154 Courtiers and Burghers
Nevertheless it would be wrong to imagine that Italian art was suddenly set apart
from the remainder of Europe. On the contrary. Giotto’s ideas gained influence in
the countries north of the Alps, while the ideals of the Gothic painters of the north
also began to have their effect on the southern masters. It was particularly in Siena,
another Tuscan town and a great rival of Florence, that the taste and fashion of these
northern artists made a very deep impression. The painters of Siena had not broken
with the earlier Byzantine tradition in such an abrupt and revolutionary manner as
Giotto in Florence. Their greatest master of Giotto’s generation, Duccio, had tried
— and tried successfully — to breathe new life into the old Byzantine forms instead of
discarding them altogether. The altar panel of Fig. 141 was made by two younger
masters of his school, Simone Martini (1285 ?— 1357 ?) and Lippo Memmi (died
1347?). It shows to what an extent the ideals and the general atmosphere of the
fourteenth century had been absorbed by Sienese art. The painting represents the
Annunciation — the moment when the Archangel Gabriel arrives from Heaven to
greet the Virgin, and we can read his words coming out of his mouth: ‘Ave Maria,
grazia plena’ . In his left hand he holds an olive branch, symbol of peace; his right
hand is lifted as if he were about to speak. The Virgin has been reading. The
appearance of the angel has taken her by surprise. She shrinks away in a movement
of awe and humility, while looking back at the messenger from Heaven. Between the
two there stands a vase with white lilies, symbols of virginity, and high up in the
central pointed arch we see the dove, symbol of the Holy Ghost, surrounded
by four-winged cherubim. These masters
shared the predilection of the French and
English artists of Figs. 139 and 140 for
delicate forms and a lyrical mood. They
enjoyed the gentle curves of the flowing
drapery and the subtle grace of slender
bodies. The whole painting, in fact, looks
like some precious goldsmith’s work, with
its figures standing out from a golden
background, so skilfully arranged that they
form an admirable pattern. One can never
cease to wonder at the way in which these
figures are fitted into the complicated
shape of the panel; the way in which the
angel’s wings are framed by the pointed
arch to the left, and the Virgin’s figure
shrinks back into the shelter of the pointed
arch to the right, while the empty space
between them is filled by the vase and the
141. SIMONE MARTINI and LIPPO MEMMI:
The Annunciation. Painted in 1333 for an
altar in Siena Cathedral. Florence. Uffizi
Courtiers and Burghers 155
dove over it. The painters had learned this art of fitting the figures into a pattern
from the medieval tradition. We had occasion, earlier, to admire the way in which
medieval artists arranged the symbols of the sacred stories so as to form a satisfying
pattern. But we know that they did so by ignoring the real shape and proportion of
things, and by forgetting about space altogether. That was no longer the way of the
Sienese artists. Perhaps we may find their figures a little strange, with their slanting
eyes and curved mouths. But we need only look at some details to see that the
achievements of Giotto had by no means been lost on them. The vase is a real vase
standing on a real stone floor, and we can tell exactly where it stands in relation to
the angel and the Virgin. The bench on which the Virgin sits is a real bench, receding
into the background, and the book she holds is not just the symbol of a book, but a
real prayer book with light falling on it and with shade between the pages, which
the artist must have studied from a prayer book in his studio.
Giotto was a contemporary of the great Florentine poet Dante, who mentions
him in his Divine Comedy. Simone Martini, the master of Fig. 141, was a friend
of Petrarch, the greatest Italian poet of the next generation. Petrarch’s fame today
rests mainly on the many love-sonnets he wrote for Laura. We know from them
that Simone Martini painted a portrait of Laura which Petrarch treasured. Now
this may not seem to us a very startling fact unless we remember that portraits in
our sense had not existed during the Middle Ages. We remember that artists were
content to use any conventional figure of a man or a woman, and to write on it the
name of the person it was intended to represent. Unfortunately, Simone Martini’s
portrait of Laura is lost, and we do not know how far it was a real likeness. We do
know, however, that this artist and other masters in the fourteenth century painted
likenesses from nature, and that the art of portraiture developed during that period.
Perhaps the way in which Simone Martini looked at nature and observed details
had something to do with this, for the artists of Europe had ample opportunity of
learning from his achievements. Like Petrarch himself, Simone Martini spent many
years at the court of the Pope, which was at that time not in Rome but at Avignon
in France. France was still the centre of Europe, and French ideas and styles had a
great influence everywhere. Germany was ruled by a family from Luxembourg who
had their residence in Prague. There is a wonderful series of busts dating from this
period (between 1379 and 1386) in the cathedral of Prague. They represent
benefactors of the church and thus serve a similar purpose as the figures of the
Naumburg ‘Founders’ (p. 139, Fig. 129). But here we need no longer be in doubt.
These are real portraits. For the series includes busts of contemporaries including
one of the artist in charge, Peter Parler the Younger, which is in all probability the
first real self-portrait of an artist known to us (Fig. 142).
Bohemia became one of the centres through which this influence from Italy and
France spread more widely. Its contacts reached as far as England, where Richard II
K
Courtiers and Burghers 157
143. St. John, St. Edward the Confessor and Si. Edmund recommend Richard II to the Virgin.
From the Wilton Diptych. About 1400. London, National Gallery
married Anne of Bohemia. England traded with Burgundy. Europe, in fact, or at
least the Europe of the Latin Church, was still one large unit. Artists and ideas
travelled from one centre to another, and no one thought of rejecting an achievement
because it was ‘foreign’. The style which arose out of this mutual give-and-take to-
wards the end of the fourteenth century is known among historians as the ‘Inter-
national Style’. A wonderful example of it in England, possibly painted by a French
master for an English king, is the so-called Wilton diptych (Fig. 143). It is interesting
to us for many reasons, including the fact that it, too, records the features of a real
historical personage, and that of no other than Anne of Bohemia’s unlucky husband
— King Richard II. He is painted kneeling before the Holy Virgin, with three saints
interceding for him, and presenting him to the Christ-child who is bending forward
with a gesture of blessing, and is surrounded by choirs of angels. Two of the saints
and one angel point towards the king, as if to draw the Virgin’s attention to him.
Perhaps something of the ancient magical attitude towards the image still survives
in the custom of ‘donors’ portraits’ to remind us of the tenacity of these beliefs
which we have found in the very cradle of art. Who can tell whether the donor did
not feel somehow reassured in the rough and tumble of life, in which his own part
was perhaps not always very saintly, to know that in some quiet church or chapel
there was something of himself — a likeness fixed there through an artist’s skill,
which always kept company with the saints and angels and never ceased praying ?
158 Courtiers and Burghers
It is easy to see how the art of
the Wilton diptych is linked with
the works we have discussed before,
how it shares with them the taste for
beautiful flowing lines and for dainty
and delicate motifs.The way in which
the Virgin touches the foot of the
Christ-child, and the gestures of the
angels with their long and slender
hands, remind us of figures we have
seen before. Once more we see how
the artist showed his skill in fore-
shortening, for instance in the posture
of the angel kneeling on the left side
of the panel, and how he enjoys
making use of studies from nature
in the many flowers which adorn the
paradise of his imagination.
The artists of the International
Style applied the same power of ob-
servation, and the same delight in
delicate and beautiful things, to their
portrayal of the world around them.
It had been customary in the Middle
Ages to illustrate calendars with pic-
tures of the changing occupations of the months, of sowing, hunting, harvesting.
A calendar attached to a prayer book which a rich Burgundian duke had ordered
from the workshop of the brothers Limbourg (Fig. 144) shows how these pictures
from real life had gained in liveliness and observation, even since the time of
Queen Mary’s Psalter of Fig. 140. The miniature represents the annual spring
festival of the courtiers. They are riding through a wood in gay attire, wreathed with
leaves and flowers. We can see how the painter enjoyed the spectacle of the pretty
girls in their fashionable dresses, and how he took pleasure in bringing the whole
colourful pageantry on to his page. Once more we may think of Chaucer and his
pilgrims; for our artist, too, took pains to distinguish the different types, so skilfully
that we almost seem to hear them talking. Such a picture was probably painted
with a magnifying glass, and it should be studied with the same loving attention. All
the choice details which the artist has crowded on to his page combine to build up
a picture which looks nearly like a scene from real life. Nearly, but not quite; for
when we notice that the artist has closed the background with a kind of curtain of
144. Paul and jean de limbourg: May.
Page from a Book of Hours painted for the
Duke of Berry about 1410. Chantilly,
Musee Conde
145- pisanello: Monkey. Leaf from a sketch-book. About 1430. Paris, Louvre
trees, beyond which we see the roof-tops of a vast castle, we realize that what he
gives us is not an actual scene from nature. His art seems so far removed from the
symbolic way of telling a story which earlier painters had used, that it needs an
effort to realize that even he cannot represent the space in which his figures move,
and that he achieves the illusion of reality mainly through his close attention to
detail. His trees are not real trees painted from nature, but rather a row of symbolic
trees, one beside the other, and even his human faces are still developed more or less
out of one charming formula. Nevertheless, his interest in all the splendour and
gaiety of the real life around him shows that his ideas about the aims of painting
were very different from those of the artists of the early Middle Ages. The interest
had gradually shifted, from the best way of telling a sacred story as clearly and
impressively as possible, to the methods of representing a piece of nature in the most
faithful way. We have seen that the two ideals do not necessarily clash. It was
certainly possible to place this newly acquired knowledge of nature at the service
of religious art, as the masters of the fourteenth century had done, and as other
160 Courtiers and Burghers
masters were to do after them ; but, for the artist, the task had nevertheless changed.
Formerly it was sufficient training to learn the ancient formulae for representing the
main figures of the sacred story and to apply this knowledge in ever-new combina-
tions. Now the artist’s job included a different skill. He had to be able to make studies
from nature and to transfer them to his pictures. He began to use a sketch-book, and
to lay up a store of sketches of rare and beautiful plants and animals. What had been
an exception in the case of Matthew Paris (p. 142, Fig. 131) was soon to be the rule.
A drawing such as Fig. 145, made by the North Italian artist Pisanello (1397 P-1450)
only some twenty years after the Limbourg miniature shows how this habit led
artists to study a live animal with loving interest. The public which looked at the
artist’s works began to judge them by the skill with which nature was portrayed,
and by the wealth of attractive details which the artist managed to bring into his
pictures. The artists, however, wanted to go one better. They were no longer con-
tent with the newly acquired mastery of painting such details as flowers or animals
from nature; they wanted to explore the laws of vision, and to acquire sufficient
knowledge of the human body to build it up in their statues and pictures as the
Greeks had done. Once their interest took this turn, medieval art was really at an
end. We come to the period usually known as the Renaissance.
146. A Sculptor at Work. One of
ANDREA PISANO’S reliefs on the
Florentine Campanile.
About 1340
chapter 12 • THE CONQUEST OF REALITY
The Early Fifteenth Century
147. An Early Renaissance Church: the Cappella Pazzi , Florence.
Designed by Brunelleschi about 1430
T HE word Renaissance means rebirth or revival, and the idea of such a
rebirth had gained ground in Italy ever since the time of Giotto. When
people of the period wanted to praise a poet or an artist, they said that his
work was as good as that of the ancients. Giotto had been exalted in this way as a
master who had led to a true revival of art; by this, people meant that his art was as
good as that of the famous masters whose work they found praised in the classical
Greek and Roman writers. It is not surprising that this idea became popular in
Italy. The Italians were very much aware of the fact that in the distant past Italy,
with Rome her capital, had been the centre of the civilized world, and that her
power and glory had waned since the Germanic tribes, Goths and Vandals, had
invaded the country and broken up the Roman Empire. The idea of a revival was
closely connected in the minds of the Italians with the idea of a rebirth of ‘the
grandeur that was Rome’. The period between the classical age, to which they looked
back with pride, and the new era of rebirth for which they hoped, was merely a
1 62 The Conquest of Reality
sad interlude, ‘The Time Between*. Thus the idea of a rebirth or renaissance was
responsible for the idea that the intervening period was a Middle Age — and we still
use this terminology. As the Italians blamed the Goths for the downfall of the
Roman Empire, they began to speak of the art of this intervening period as Gothic,
by which they meant barbaric — much as we still speak of vandalism when we refer
to the useless destruction of beautiful things.
We now know that these ideas of the Italians had little basis in fact. They were,
at best, a crude and much simplified picture of the actual course of events. We have
seen that some seven hundred years separated the Goths from the rise of the art that
we now call Gothic. We also know that the revival of art, after the shock and tur-
moil of the Dark Ages, came gradually and that the Gothic period itself saw this
revival getting into its full stride. Possibly we can understand the reason why the
Italians were less aware of this gradual growth and unfolding of art than the people
living farther north. We have seen that they lagged behind during part of the
Middle Ages, so that the new achievements of Giotto came to them as a tremendous
innovation, a rebirth of all that was noble and great in art. The Italians of the four-
teenth century believed that art, science and scholarship had flourished in the
classical period, that all these things had been almost destroyed by the northern
barbarians and that it was for them to help to revive the glorious past and thus bring
about a new era.
In no city was this feeling of confidence and hope more intense than in the
wealthy merchant city of Florence. It was there, in the first decades of the fifteenth
century, that a group of artists deliberately set out to create a new art and to break
with the ideas of the past.
The leader of this group of young Florentine artists was an architect, Filippo
Brunelleschi (1377-1446). Brunelleschi was employed on the completion of the
Cathedral of Florence. It was a Gothic cathedral, and Brunelleschi had fully
mastered the technical inventions which formed part of the Gothic tradition. His
fame, in fact, rests partly on an achievement in construction and design which
would not have been possible without his knowledge of the Gothic methods of
vaulting. The Florentines wished to have their cathedral crowned by a mighty
cupola, but no artist was able to span the immense space between the pillars on
which the cupola was to rest, till Brunelleschi devised a method of accomplishing
this. When Brunelleschi was called upon to design new churches or other buildings,
he decided to discard the traditional style altogether, and to adopt the programme
of those who longed for a revival of Roman grandeur. It is said that he travelled to
Rome and measured the ruins of temples and palaces, and made sketches of their
forms and ornaments. It was never his intention to copy these ancient buildings
outright. They could hardly have been adapted to the needs of fifteenth-century
Florence. What he aimed at was the creation of a new way of building, in which the
The Conquest of Reality 163
forms of classical architecture were freely
used to create new modes of harmony and
beauty.
What remains most astonishing in
Brunelleschi’s achievement is the fact
that he actually succeeded in making his
programme come true. For nearly five
hundred years the architects of Europe
and America have followed in his foot-
steps. Wherever we go in our cities and
villages we find buildings in which classical
forms, such as columns or pediments are
used. It was only a generation ago that
some architects began to question Brunel-
leschi’s programme and to revolt against
the Renaissance tradition in building, just
as he had revolted against the Gothic tradi-
tion. But most of the houses which are being
built now, even those which have no columns or similar trimmings, still preserve
remnants of classical form in the shape of mouldings on doors and window-frames,
or in the measurements and proportions of the building. If Brunelleschi wanted to
create the architecture of a new era, he certainly succeeded.
Fig. 147 shows the facade of a little church which Brunelleschi built for the
powerful family of the Pazzi in Florence. We see at once that it has little in common
with any classical temple, but even less with the forms used by Gothic builders.
Brunelleschi has combined columns, pilasters and arches in his own way to achieve
an effect of lightness and grace which is different from anything that has gone
before. Details such as the framing of the door, with its classical gable or pediment,
show how carefully Brunelleschi had studied the ancient ruins. We see this even
more clearly as we enter the church (Fig. 148). Nothing in this bright and well-
proportioned interior has any of the features which Gothic architects valued so
highly. There are no high windows, no slim pillars. Instead, the blank white wall
is subdivided by grey pilasters (flat half-columns) which convey the idea of a
classical ‘order’, although they serve no real function in the construction of the
building. Brunelleschi only put them there to emphasize the shape and proportion
of the interior.
Brunelleschi was not only the initiator of Renaissance architecture. To him, it
seems, is due another momentous discovery in the field of art, which also dominated
the art of subsequent centuries — that of perspective. We have seen that even the
Greeks, who understood foreshortening, and the Hellenistic painters who were
148. Interior of the Cappella Pazzi.
Designed by Brunelleschi about 1430
1 49 * masaccio: The Holy Trinity, the Virgin, St.John and Donors.
Wall-painting in Sta Maria Novella, Florence. Painted about 1427
The Conquest of Reality 165
skilled in creating the illusion of depth (p. 77, Fig. 70), did not know the mathe-
matical laws by which objects diminish in size as they recede into the background.
We remember that no classical artist could have drawn the famous avenue of trees
leading back into the picture until it vanishes on the horizon. It was Brunelleschi
who gave the artists the mathematical means of solving this problem; and the
excitement which this caused among his painter-friends must have been immense.
Fig. 149 shows one of the first paintings which were made according to these
mathematic rules. It is a wall-painting in a Florentine church, and represents the
Holy Trinity with the Virgin and St. John under the cross, and the donors — an
elderly merchant and his wife — kneeling outside. The artist who painted this was
called Masaccio (1401-28), which means ‘clumsy Thomas’. He must have been an
extraordinary genius, for we know that he died when hardly twenty-eight years of
age, and that by that time he had already brought about a complete revolution in
painting. This revolution did not consist only in the technical trick of perspective
painting, though that in itself must have been startling enough when it was new.
We can imagine how amazed the Florentines must have been when this wall-
painting was unveiled and seemed to have made a hole in the wall through which
they could look into a new chapel in Brunelleschi’s modern style. But perhaps they
were even more amazed at the simplicity and grandeur of the figures which were
framed by this new architecture. If the Florentines had expected something in the
vein of the International Style which was as fashionable in Florence as elsewhere in
Europe, they must have been disappointed. Instead of delicate grace, they saw
massive heavy figures; instead of easy-flowing curves, solid angular forms; and,
instead of dainty details such as flowers and precious stones, there was nothing but
austere majestic architecture. But if Masaccio’s art was less pleasing to the eye than
the paintings they had been accustomed to, it was all the more sincere and moving.
We can see that Masaccio admired the dramatic grandeur of Giotto, though he did
not imitate him. The simple gesture with which the Holy Virgin points to her
crucified son is so eloquent and impressive because it is the only movement in the
whole solemn painting. Its figures, in fact, look like statues. It is this effect, more
than anything else, that Masaccio has heightened by the perspective frame in which
he placed his figures. We feel we can almost touch them, and this feeling brings
them and their message nearer to us. To the great masters of the Renaissance, the
new devices and discoveries of art were never an end in themselves. They always
used them to bring the meaning of their subject still nearer to our minds.
The greatest sculptor of Brunelleschi’s circle was the Florentine master Donatello
(1386 ?-i466). He was older than Masaccio by many years, but he lived much longer.
Fig. 150 shows a work of his youth. It was commissioned by the guild of the
armourers whose patron saint, St. George, it represents, and was destined for a
niche on the outside of a Florentine church (Or San Michele). If we think back to
i6 6
The Conquest of Reality
150. DONATELLO: St. George. Marble statue from
the Church of Or San Michele, Florence.
About 1416. Florence, Bargello
the Gothic statues outside the great
cathedrals (p. 136, Fig. 127), we
realize how completely Donatello
broke with the past. These Gothic
statues hovered at the side of the
porches in calm and solemn rows
looking like beings from a different
world. Donatello’s St. George
stands firmly on the ground, his
feet planted resolutely on the earth
as if he were determined not to
yield an inch. His face has none of
the vague and serene beauty of
medieval saints — it is all energy and
concentration. He seems to watch
the approach of the enemy and to
take its measure, his hands resting
on his shield, his whole attitude
tense with defiant determination.
The statue has remained famous as
an unrivalled picture of youthful
dash and courage. But it is not only
Donatello’s imagination which we
must admire, his faculty of visualiz-
ing the knightly saint in such a fresh
and convincing manner; his whole
approach to the art of sculpture
shows a completely new conception.
Despite the impression of life and
movement which the statue conveys
it remains clear in outline and solid
as a rock. Like Masaccio’s paintings,
it shows us that Donatello wanted
to replace the gentle refinement of
his predecessors by a new and vig-
orous observation of nature. Such
details as the hands or the brows of
the saint show a complete indepen-
dence from the traditional models.
They prove a new and independent
The Conquest of Reality
167
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15 1. DONATELLO: Herod's Feast. Gilt bronze relief from a font in S. Giovanni, Siena.
Completed in 1427
study of the real features of the human body. For these Florentine masters of the
beginning of the fifteenth century were no longer content to repeat the old formulae
handed down by medieval artists. Like the Greeks and Romans, whom they admired,
they began to study the human body in their studios and workshops by asking models
or fellow-artists to pose for them in the required attitudes. It is this new method and
this new interest which makes Donatello's work look so fresh and so real.
Donatello acquired great fame in his lifetime. Like Giotto, a century earlier, he
was frequently called to other Italian cities to add to their beauty and glory.
Fig. 15 1 shows a bronze relief he made for the font of Siena ten years after the
St. George, in 1427. Like the medieval font of p. 127, Fig. 1 19, it illustrates a scene
from the life of St. John the Baptist. It shows the gruesome moment when the
princess Salome had asked King Herod for the head of St. John as a reward for
her dancing, and got it. We look into the royal banqueting hall, and beyond it to the
1 68 The Conquest of Reality
musicians’ gallery and a flight of rooms and stairs behind. The executioner has just
entered and knelt down before the king carrying the head of the saint on a charger.
The king shrinks back and raises his hands in horror, children cry and run away,
Salome’s mother, who instigated the crime, is seen talking to the king, trying to
explain the deed. There is a great void around her as the guests recoil. One of them
covers his eyes with his hand, others crowd round Salome who seems just to have
stopped in her dance. One need not explain at length what features were new in
such a work of Donatello’s. They all were. To people accustomed to the clear and
graceful narratives of Gothic art, Donatello’s way of telling a story must have come
as a shock. Here there was no need to form a neat and pleasing pattern, but rather
to produce the effect of sudden chaos. Like Masaccio’s figures, Donatello’s are
harsh and angular in their movements. Their gestures are violent, and there is no
attempt to mitigate the horror of the story. To his contemporaries, the scene must
have looked almost uncannily alive.
The new art of perspective further increases the illusion of reality. Donatello
must have begun by asking himself: ‘What must it have been like when the head
of the saint was brought into the hall ?’ He did his best to represent a Roman
palace, such as the one in which the event might have taken place, and he chose
Roman types for the figures in the background. We can see clearly, in fact, that at
that time Donatello, like his friend Brunelleschi, had begun a systematic study of
Roman remains to help him bring about the rebirth of art. It is quite wrong, how-
ever, to imagine that this study of Greek and Roman art caused the rebirth or
‘Renaissance’. The position was rather the other way round. The artists round
Brunelleschi longed so passionately for a revival of art that they turned to nature, to
science and to the remains of antiquity to realize their new aims.
The mastery of science and of the knowledge of classical art remained for some
time the exclusive possession of the Italian artists of the Renaissance. But the
passionate will to create a new art, which should be more faithful to nature than
anything that had ever been seen before, also inspired the artists of the same
generation in the north.
Just as Donatello’s generation in Florence became tired of the subtleties and
refinements of the International Gothic style and longed to create more vigorous,
austere figures, so a sculptor beyond the Alps strove for an art more lifelike and more
forthright than the delicate works of his predecessors. This sculptor was Claus
Sluter who worked from about 1380-1400 at Dijon, at that time the capital of the
rich and prosperous Duchy of Burgundy. His most famous work is a group of
prophets which once formed the base of a large crucifix marking the fountain of a
famous place of pilgrimage (Fig. 152). They are the men whose words were inter-
preted as the prediction of the Passion. Each of them holds in his hand a large book
or scroll on which these words were inscribed and seems to be meditating on this
The Conquest of Reality 169
152. GLAUS SLUTER: The Prophets Daniel and Isaiah. From the Moses Fountain near Dijon,
erected between 1393 and 1402
coming tragedy. These are no longer the solemn and rigid figures that flanked the
porches of Gothic cathedrals (p. 1363 Fig. 127). They differ from these earlier
works just as much as does Donatello’s St. George. The man with the turban is
Daniel, the bareheaded old prophet, Isaiah. As they stand before us, larger than life.
170 The Conquest of Reality
still resplendent with gold and colour, they look less like statues than like impressive
characters from one of the medieval mystery plays just about to recite their part.
But with all this striking illusion of lifelikeness we should not forget the artistic
sense with which Sluter has created these massive figures with the sweep of their
drapery and the dignity of their bearing.
Yet it was not a sculptor who carried out the final conquest of reality in the north.
For the artist whose revolutionary discoveries were felt from the beginning to
represent something entirely new was the painter Jan van Eyck (1390 ?-i44i). Like
Sluter, he was connected with the court of the Dukes of Burgundy, but he mostly
worked in the part of the Netherlands that is now called Belgium. His most famous
work is a huge altar-piece with many scenes in the city of Ghent. It is said to have
been begun by Jan’s elder brother Hubert, of whom little is known, and was com-
pleted by Jan in 1432, during the same decade as saw the completion of the great
works by Masaccio and Donatello already described. Fig. 153 is the part of this
wonderful altar that shows saints or pilgrims flocking to the adoration of the Lamb.
At first sight, this gay picture may not look very different from the miniatures
painted for the Burgundian court about a generation earlier (p. 158, Fig. 144).
Indeed, if we look at the May festival as the brothers Limbourg painted it, we cer-
tainly see many striking similarities. Unlike the Florentine artists of his generation,
Jan van Eyck did not break outright with the traditions of the International Style.
He rather pursued the methods of the brothers Limbourg, and brought them to
such a pitch of perfection that he left the ideas of medieval art behind. They, like
other Gothic masters of their period, had enjoyed crowding their pictures with
charming and delicate details taken from observation. They were proud to show
their skill in painting flowers and animals, buildings, gorgeous costumes and
jewellery, and to present a veritable feast to the eye. We have seen that they
did not concern themselves overmuch with the appearance of the figures and
landscapes, and that their drawing and perspective were therefore not very^ con-
vincing. One cannot say the same thing of Van Eyck’s pictures. His observation of
nature is even more patient, his knowledge of details even more exact. The trees
and the building in the background show this difference clearly. The trees of the
Limbourg brothers, as we remember, were rather schematic and conventional. This
landscape looked like a back-cloth or a tapestry rather than actual scenery. All this
is quite different in Van Eyck’s picture. Here we have real trees and a real landscape
leading back to the city and castle on the horizon. The infinite patience with which
the grass on the rocks, and the flowers growing in the crags, are painted bears no
comparison with the ornamental undergrowth on the Limbourg miniature. What is
true of the landscape is true of the figures. Van Eyck seems to have been so intent
on reproducing every minute detail on his picture that we almost seem able to count
the hairs of the horses’ manes, or on the fur trimmings of the riders’ costumes. The
153* JAN van EYCK: The Righteous Judges and theKmghts of Christ. Wings from the Ghent altar.
Completed in 1432. Ghent, St. Bavo
L
172 The Conquest of Reality
white horse on the Limbourg miniature looks a little like a rocking-horse.Van Eyck’s
horse is very similar in shape and posture, but it is alive. We can see the light in its
eye, and the creases in its skin, and, while the earlier horse looks almost flat. Van
Eyck’s horse has rounded limbs which are modelled in light and shade.
It may seem petty to look out for all these small details and to praise a great artist
for the patience with which he observed and copied nature. It would certainly be
wrong to think less highly of the work of the brothers Limbourg or, for that matter,
of any other painting, because it lacked this faithful imitation of nature. But if we
want to understand the way in which northern art developed we must appreciate
this infinite care and patience of Jan van Eyck. The southern artists of his genera-
tion, the Florentine masters of Brunelleschi’s circle, had developed a method by
which nature could be represented in a picture with almost scientific accuracy. They
began with the framework of perspective lines, and they built up the human body
through their knowledge of anatomy and of the laws of foreshortening. Van Eyck
took the opposite way. He achieved the illusion of nature by patiently adding detail
upon detail till his whole picture became like a mirror of the visible world. This
difference between northern and Italian art remained important for many years.
It is a fair guess to say that any work which excels in the representation of the
beautiful surface of things, of flowers, jewels or fabric, will be by a northern
artist, most probably by an artist from the Netherlands; while a painting with
bold outlines, clear perspective and a sure mastery of the beautiful human body,
will be Italian.
To carry out his intention of holding up the mirror to reality in all its details.
Van Eyck had to improve the technique of painting. He was the inventor of oil-
painting. There has been much discussion about the exact meaning and truth of this
assertion, but the details matter comparatively little. His was not a discovery like
that of perspective, which constituted something entirely new. What he achieved
was a new prescription for the preparation of paints before they were put on the
panel. Painters at that time did not buy ready-made colours in tubes or boxes. They
had to prepare their own pigments, mostly from coloured plants and minerals.
These they ground to powder between two stones — or let their apprentice grind
them — and, before use, they added some liquid to bind the powder into a kind of
paste. There were various methods of doing that, but, all through the Middle
Ages, the main ingredient of the liquid had been made of an egg, which was quite
suitable except that it dried rather quickly. The method of painting with this type
of colour-preparation was called tempera. It seems that Jan van Eyck was dissatis-
fied with the formula, because it did not allow him to achieve smooth transitions
by letting the colours shade off into each other. If he used oil instead of egg,
he could work much more slowly and accurately. He could make glossy colours
which could be applied in transparent layers, or ‘glazes’ he could put on the
The Conquest of Reality
m
154. jan van eyck: The Betrothal of the Arnolfini. Painted in 1434.
London, National Gallery
glittering high-lights with a pointed brush, and achieve these miracles of accuracy
which astonished his contemporaries and soon led to a general acceptance of oil-
painting as the most suitable medium.
Van Eyck’s art reached perhaps its greatest triumph in the painting of portraits.
One of his most famous portraits is Fig. 154, which represents an Italian merchant,
Giovanni Arnolfini, who had come to the Netherlands on business, with his bride
Jeanne de Chenany. In its own way it was as new and as revolutionary as Donatello’s
or Masaccio’s work in Italy. A simple corner of the real world had suddenly been
fixed on to a panel as by magic. Here it all was — the carpet and the slippers, the
174 The Conquest of Reality
rosary on the wall, the little brush beside the bed, and the fruit on the window
sill. It is as if we could pay a visit to the Amolfini in their house. The picture
probably represents a solemn moment in their lives — their betrothal. The young
woman has just put her right hand into Arnolfini’s left and he is about to put his
own right hand into hers as a solemn token of their union. Probably the painter was
asked to record this important moment as a witness, just as a notary might be asked
to declare that he has been present at a similar solemn act. This would explain why
the master has put his name in a prominent position on the picture with the Latin
words 'Johannes de eyck fuit hid — (Jan van Eyck was present). In the mirror at
the back of the room we see the whole scene reflected from behind, and there, so it
seems, we also see the image of the painter and witness. We do not know whether
it was the Italian merchant or the northern artist who conceived the idea of making
this use of the new kind of painting, which may be compared to the legal use of a
photograph, properly endorsed by a witness. But whoever it was that originated
155. Detail of Fig. 154
156. CONRAD WITZ: Christ Walking on the Wazes. From an altar painted in 1444.
Geneva* Museum
this idea, he had certainly been quick to understand the tremendous possibilities
which lay in Van Eyck’s new way of painting. For the first time in history the artist
became the perfect eye-witness in the truest sense of the term.
In this attempt to render reality as it appeared to the eye, Van Eyck, like Masaccio,
had to give up the pleasing patterns and flowing curves of the International Gothic
style. To some, his figures may even look stiff and clumsy compared with the
exquisite grace of such paintings as the Wilton diptych (p. 157, Fig. 143). But
everywhere in Europe artists of that generation, in their passionate search for
truth, defied the older ideas of beauty and probably shocked many elderly people.
One of the most radical of these innovators was a Swiss painter called Conrad Witz
(1400 P-1446 ?). Fig. 156 is from an altar he painted for Geneva in 1444. Witz had
set himself the task of representing the episode of Christ walking over the waters of
Lake Genesareth. A medieval painter would have been satisfied with a conventional
image of waves to mark the lake. But Witz desired to bring home to the burghers
of Geneva what it must have looked like when Christ stood on the waters. Thus he
painted not just any /ake but a lake they all knew, the lake of Geneva with the
massive Mont Saleve rising in the background. It is a real landscape which everyone
176 The Conquest of Reality
could see, which exists today, and still looks very much as it does in the painting.
It is perhaps the first exact representation, the first ‘portrait’ of a real view ever
attempted. On this real lake, Witz painted real fishermen; not the dignified apostles
of older pictures, but uncouth men of the people, busy with their fishing tackle and
struggling rather clumsily to keep the barge steady. St. Peter looks somewhat help-
less in the water, and so, surely, he ought. Only Christ Himself is standing quietly
and firmly on the waves, wrapped in his coat, calm in the midst of all the excite-
ment. His solid figure recalls those on Masaccio’s great fresco (Fig. 149). It must
have been a moving experience for the worshippers in Geneva when they saw it for
the first time, when they saw the apostles as men like themselves, fishing on their
own lake, with Christ walking on its familiar waters and exhorting them ‘Be not
afraid’ (Matthew xiv. 27).
157. Stonemasons and sculptors at work on bricklayings drillings measuring and sculpting.
From the base of a group byNANNi di banco. About 1408. Florence, Or San Michele
chapter 13 • TRADITION AND INNOVATION: I
The Later Fifteenth Century in Italy
158. A Renaissance Church: S. Andrea in Mantua . Designed by alberti about 1460
T HE new discoveries which had been made by the artists of Italy and
Flanders at the beginning of the fifteenth century had created a stir all
over Europe. Painters and patrons alike were fascinated by the idea that
art could not only be used to tell the sacred story in a moving way, but might serve
to mirror a fragment of the real world. Perhaps the most immediate result of this
178 Tradition and Innovation: Italy
great revolution in art was that artists everywhere began to experiment and to
search for new and startling effects. This spirit of adventure which took hold of art
in the fifteenth century marks the real break with the Middle Ages.
There is one effect of this break which we must consider first. Until round about
1400, art in different parts of Europe had developed on similar lines. We re-
remember that the style of the Gothic painters and sculptors of that period is known
as the International Style because the aims of the leading masters in France and
Italy, in Germany and Burgundy, were all very similar. Of course, national differ-
ences had existed all through the Middle Ages — we remember the differences
between France and Italy during the thirteenth century — but on the whole these
were not very important. This applies not to the field of art alone, but also to the
world of learning and even to politics. The learned men of the Middle Ages all spoke
and wrote Latin and did not much mind whether they taught at the University of
Paris or that of Padua or Prague.
The noblemen of the period shared the ideals of chivalry; their loyalty to their
king or their feudal overlord did not imply that they considered themselves the
champions of any particular people or nation. All this had gradually changed to-
wards the end of the Middle Ages, when the cities with their burghers and merchants
became increasingly more important than the castles of the barons. The mer-
chants spoke their native tongue and stood together against any foreign com-
petitor or intruder. Each city was proud and jealous of its own position and
privileges in trade and industry. In the Middle Ages a good master might travel
from building site to building site, he might be recommended from one monastery
to another, and few would trouble to ask what his nationality was. But as soon as
the cities gained in importance, artists, like all artisans and craftsmen, were organ-
ized into guilds. These guilds were in many respects similar to our trade unions. It
was their task to watch over the rights and privileges of their members and to
ensure a safe market for their produce. To be admitted into the guild the artist had
to show that he was able to reach certain standards, that he was, in fact, a master
of his craft. He was then allowed to open a workshop, to employ apprentices, and
to accept commissions for altar-paintings, portraits, painted chests, flags and
standards, or any other work of the kind.
The guilds and corporations were usually wealthy companies who had a say in
the government of the city and who not only helped to make it prosperous, but also
did their best to make it beautiful. In Florence and elsewhere the guilds, the gold-
smiths, the wool-workers, the leather-workers and others, devoted part of their funds
to the foundation of churches, the building of guild halls and the dedication of altars
and chapels. In this respect they did much for art. On the other hand they watched
anxiously over the interests of their own members, and therefore made it difficult for
any foreign artist to get employment or to settle among them. Only the most famous
Tradition and Innovation: Italy 179
of artists sometimes managed to break down this resistance and to travel as freely
as had been possible at the period when the great cathedrals were being built.
All this has a bearing on the history of art, because, thanks to the growth of the
cities, the International Style was perhaps the last international style Europe has
seen. In the fifteenth century art broke up into a number of different ‘schools’ —
nearly every city or small town in Italy, Flanders and Germany had its own ‘school
of painting’. ‘School’ is rather a misleading word. In those days there were no art
schools where young students attended classes. If a boy decided that he would like
to become a painter, his father apprenticed him at an early age to one of the leading
masters of the town. He usually lived in, ran errands for the master’s family, and had
to make himself useful in every possible way. One of his first tasks might be to grind
the colours, or to assist in the preparation of the wooden panels or the canvas which
the master wanted to use. Gradually he might be given some minor piece of work
like the painting of a flagstaff. Then, one day when the master was busy, he might
ask the apprentice to help with the completion of some unimportant or incon-
spicuous part of a major work — to paint the background which the master had
traced out on the canvas, to finish the costume of the bystanders in a scene. If he
showed talent and knew how to imitate his master’s manner to perfection, the
youth would gradually be given more important things to do — perhaps paint a
whole picture from the master’s sketch and under his supervision. These, then,
were the ‘schools of painting’ of the fifteenth century. They were indeed excellent
schools and there are many painters nowadays who wish they had received so
thorough a training. The manner in which the masters of a town handed down their
skill and experience to the young generation also explains why the ‘schools of
painting’ in these towns developed such a clear individuality of their own. One can
recognize whether a fifteenth-century picture comes from Florence or Siena,
Ferrara, Nuremberg, Cologne or Vienna.
To gain a vantage point from which we can survey this immense variety of
masters, ‘schools’ and experiments, we had best return to Florence where the great
revolution in art had begun. It is fascinating to watch how the second generation,
which followed Brunelleschi, Donatello and Masaccio, tried to make use of their
discoveries, and apply them to all the tasks with which they were confronted. That
was not always easy. The main tasks which the patrons commissioned had, after all,
remained fundamentally unchanged since the earlier period. The new and revolu-
tionary methods sometimes seemed to clash with the traditional commissions. Take
the case of architecture: Brunelleschi’s idea had been to introduce the forms of
classical buildings, the columns, pediments and cornices which he had copied from
Roman ruins. He had used these forms in his churches. His successors were eager to
emulate him in this. Fig. 158 shows a church planned by the Florentine architect
Leone Battista Alberti (1404-72), who conceived its fa9ade as a gigantic triumphal
i8o Tradition and Innovation: Italy
arch in the Roman manner. But how was
this new programme to be applied to an
ordinary dwelling house in a city street?
Traditional houses and palaces could not
be built in the manner of temples. No
private houses had survived from Roman
times, and even if they had, needs and
customs had changed so much that they
might have offered little guidance. The
problem, then, was to find a compromise
between the traditional house, with walls
and windows, and the classical form which
Brunelleschi had taught the architects to
use. It was again Alberti who found the
solution that remained influential up to our
own days. When he built a palace for the
rich Florentine merchant family Rucellai
(Fig. 159), he designed an ordinary
three-storeyed building.There is little similarity between this facade and any classical
ruin. And yet Alberti stuck to Brunelleschi’s programme and used classical forms
for the decoration of the facade. Instead of building columns or half-columns, he
covered the house with a network of flat pilasters and entablatures which suggested
a classical order without changing the structure of the building. It is easy to see
where Alberti had learned this principle. We remember the Roman Colosseum
(p. 79, Fig. 72) in which various Greek ‘orders’ were applied to the various storeys.
Here, too, the lowest storey is an adaptation of the Doric order, and here, too, there
are arches between the pilasters. But, despite the similarity, we see how successful
Alberti has been in adapting this general scheme to a very different task. He had
given the old type of city palace a new and ‘modern’ appearance without forcing the
inmates to change their habits of life.
This achievement of Alberti is typical. Painters and sculptors in fifteenth-century
Florence also often found themselves in a situation in which they had to adapt the
new programme to an old tradition. The mixture between new and old, between
Gothic traditions and modern forms, is characteristic of many of the masters of the
middle of the century.
The greatest of these Florentine masters who succeeded in reconciling the new
achievements with the old tradition was a sculptor of Donatello’s generation,
Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455). Fig. 160 shows one of his reliefs for the same font
in Siena for which Donatello made the ‘Dance of Salome’ (p. 167, Fig. 15 1).
Of Donatello’s work we could say that everything was new. Ghiberti’s looks
159. Palazzo Rucellai , Florence
Designed by alberti about 1 460
Tradition and Innovation: Italy 181
much less startling at first sight. We
notice that the arrangement of the
scene is not so very different from
the one used by the famous brass-
founder of Liege in the twelfth cen-
tury (p. 127, Fig. 1 1 9): Christ in
the centre, flanked by St. John the
Baptist and the ministering angels
with God the Father and the Dove
appearing up in Heaven. Even in the
treatment of details Ghiberti’s work
recalls that of his medieval fore-
runners — the loving care with which
he arranges the folds of the drapery
may remind us of such fourteenth-
century goldsmith’s work as the Holy
Virgin on p. 151, Fig. 139. And yet
Ghiberti’s relief is in its own way as vigorous and as convincing as Donatello’s com-
panion piece. He, too, has learned to characterize each figure and to make us under-
stand the part each plays : the beauty and humility of Christ, the Lamb of God, the
solemn and energetic gesture of St. John, the emaciated prophet from the wilder-
ness, and the heavenly hosts of the angels who silently look at each other in joy and
wonder. And while Donatello’s new dramatic way of representing the sacred scene
somewhat upset the clear arrangement which had been the pride of earlier days,
Ghiberti took care to remain lucid and restrained. He does not give us the idea of
real space at which Donatello was aiming. He prefers to give us only a hint of depth
and to let his principal figures stand out clearly against a neutral background.
Just as Ghiberti remained faithful to some of the ideas of Gothic art, without
refusing to make use of the new discoveries of his century, the great painter Fra
Angelico (Brother Angelico) of Fiesole near Florence (1387-1455) applied the
new methods of Masaccio mainly in order to express the traditional ideas of religious
art. Fra Angelico was a friar of the Dominican order and the frescoes he painted in
his Florentine monastery of San Marco round about 1440 are among his most
beautiful works. He painted a sacred scene in each monk’s cell and at the end of
every corridor, and as one walks from one to the other in the stillness of the old
building one feels something of the spirit in which these works were conceived.
Fig. 161 shows a picture of the Annunciation which he painted in one of the cells.
We see at once that the art of perspective presented no difficulty to him.The cloister
where the Virgin kneels is represented as convincingly as the vault in Masaccio’s
famous fresco (p. 164, Fig. i49).Yet it was clearly not Fra Angelico’s main intention
182
Tradition and Innovation: Italy
to ‘break a hole into the wall’. Like
Simone Martini in the fourteenth century
(p. 154, Fig. 141), he only wanted to
represent the sacred story in all its beauty
and simplicity. There is hardly any move-
ment in Fra Angelico’s painting and hardly
any suggestion of real solid bodies. But I
think it is all the more moving because of
its humility, which is that of a great artist
who deliberately renounced any dis-
play of modernity despite his profound
understanding of the problems which
Brunelleschi and Masaccio had intro-
duced into art.
We can study the fascination of these
The Annunciation. Wall-painting in problems and also their difficulty m the
the Monastery of s. Marco, work of another Florentine, the painter
Florence. About 1440 . , ,
Paolo Uccello (1397-1475), whose best-
preserved work is the battle scene in the National Gallery (Fig. 162). The
picture was probably intended to be placed over the door of a private room in one
of the Florentine city palaces. It represents an episode from Florentine history, still
topical when the picture was painted, the rout of San Romano in 1432 when the
Florentine troops beat their rivals in one of the many battles between the Italian
factions. Superficially the picture may look medieval enough. These knights in
162. uccello: The Rout of San Romano . A painted panel probably from a room in
the Medici Palace. About 1450. London, National Gallery
Tradition and Innovation: Italy 183
armour with their long and heavy lances, riding as if to a tournament, may remind
us of Froissart’s Chronicles’, nor does the way in which the scene is represented
strike us at first as very modern. Both horses and men look a little wooden, almost
like toys, and the whole gay picture seems very remote from the reality of war.
But if we ask ourselves why it is that these horses look somewhat like rocking-
horses and the whole scene reminds us a little of a puppet-show, we shall make
a curious discovery. It is precisely because the painter was so fascinated by the
new possibilities of his art that he did everything to make his figures stand out
in space as if they were carved and not painted. It was said of Uccello that the
discovery of perspective had so impressed him that he spent nights and days draw-
ing objects in foreshortening, and setting himself ever new problems. His fellow
artists used to tell that he was so engrossed in these studies that he would hardly
look up when his wife called him for a meal, and would just exclaim: ‘What a sweet
thing perspective is!’ We can see something of this fascination in the painting.
Uccello obviously took great pains to represent the various pieces of armour, which
litter the ground, in correct foreshortening. His greatest pride was probably the
figure of the fallen warrior lying on the ground, the foreshortened representation
of which must have been most difficult. No such figure had been painted before
and, though it looks rather too small in relation to the other figures, we can imagine
what a stir it must have caused. We find traces all over the picture of the interest
which Uccello took in perspective and of the spell it exerted over his mind. Even
the broken lances lying on the ground are so arranged that they point towards their
common ‘vanishing point’. It is this neat mathematical arrangement which is partly
responsible for the artificial appearance of the stage on which the battle seems to
take place. If we turn back from this pageant of chivalry to Van Eyck’s picture of
knights (p. 171, Fig. 153) and the Limbourg miniatures (p. 158, Fig. 144) which we
compared with it, we may see more clearly what Uccello owed to the Gothic tradi-
tion, and how he transformed it. Van Eyck, in the north, had changed the forms
of the International Style by adding more and more details from observation and
trying to copy the surfaces of things down to the minutest shade. Uccello rather
chose the opposite approach. By means of his beloved art of perspective, he tried
to construct a convincing stage on which his figures would appear solid and real.
Solid they undoubtedly look, but the effect is a little reminiscent of the stereoscopic
pictures which one looks at through a double lens. Uccello had not yet learned how
to use the effects of light and shade and air to mellow the harsh outlines of a strictly
perspective rendering. But if we stand in front of the actual painting in the National
Gallery, we do not feel that anything is amiss, for, despite his preoccupation with
applied geometry, Uccello was a real artist.
While artists such as Fra Angelico could make use of the new without changing
the spirit of the old, while Uccello in his turn was completely captivated by the
184
Tradition and Innovation: Italy
163. benozzo gozzoli: The Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem.
Detail of a wall-painting from the chapel in the Medici Palace. Between 1459 and 1463.
Florence, Palazzo Medici- Riccardi
problems of the new, less devout and less ambitious artists applied the new methods
gaily without worrying overmuch about their difficulty. The public probably liked
these masters who gave them the best of both worlds. Thus the commission
for painting the walls of the private chapel in the city palace of the Medici, the
most powerful and wealthy of the Florentine merchant families, went to Benozzo
Tradition and Innovation: Italy 185
Gozzoli (1420-97), a pupil of Fra Angelico, but apparently a man of very different
outlook. He covered the walls of the chapel with a picture of the cavalcade of the
three Magi and made them travel in truly royal state through a smiling landscape.
The biblical episode gives him the opportunity of displaying beautiful finery and
gorgeous costumes, a fairy world of charm and gaiety. We have seen how this taste
for representing the pageantry of noble pastimes developed in Burgundy (p. 158,
Fig. 144) with which the Medici entertained close trade relations. Gozzoli seems
intent upon showing that the new achievements can be used to make these gay
pictures of contemporary life even more vivid and enjoyable. We have no reason to
quarrel with him for that. The life of the period was indeed so picturesque and
colourful that we must be grateful to those minor masters who preserved a record
of these delights in their works, and no one who goes to Florence should miss the
joy of a visit to this small chapel in which something of the zest and savour of a
festive life seems still to linger (Fig. 163).
Meanwhile, other painters in the cities north and south of Florence had absorbed
the message of the new art of Donatello and Masaccio, and were perhaps even
more eager to profit by it than the Florentines themselves. There was Andrea
Mantegna (1431-1506) who worked at first in the famous University town of Padua,
and then at the court of the lords of Mantua, both in northern Italy. In a Paduan
church, quite near the chapel where Giotto had painted his famous frescoes,
Mantegna painted a series of wall-paintings illustrating the legend of St. James.
The church was heavily damaged by bombing during the last war, and most of
these wonderful paintings by Mantegna were destroyed. It is a sad loss, because
they surely belonged to the greatest works of art of all times. One of them (Fig. 164)
showed St. James being escorted to the place of execution. Like Giotto or
Donatello, Mantegna tried to imagine quite clearly what the scene must have
looked like in reality, but the standards of what he called reality had become
much more exacting since Giotto’s day. What had mattered to Giotto was the inner
meaning of the story — how men and women would move and behave in a given
situation. Mantegna was also interested in the outward circumstances. He knew
that St. James had lived in the period of the Roman Emperors, and he was anxious
to reconstruct the scene just as it might have actually happened. He had made a
special study of classical monuments for this purpose. The city gate through which
St. James has just been led is a Roman triumphal arch, and the soldiers of the escort
all wear the dress and armour of Roman legionaries as we see them represented on
authentic classical monuments. It is not only in these details of costume and orna-
ment that the painting reminds us of ancient sculpture. The whole scene breathes
the spirit of Roman art in its harsh simplicity and austere grandeur. The difference,
indeed, between the Florentine frescoes of Benozzo Gozzoli and Mantegna’s works
which were painted approximately during the same years, could hardly be more
i86
Tradition and Innovation: Italy
164. Mantegna: St. James on the way to his execution. From a wall-painting
formerly in the Eremitani Church, Padua. Completed in 1455
pronounced. In Gozzoli’s gay pageantry we recognized a return to the taste of
the Gothic International Style. Mantegna, on the other hand, carries on where
Masaccio had left off. His figures are as statuesque and impressive as Masaccio’s.
Like Masaccio, he uses the new art of perspective with eagerness, but he does not
exploit it as Uccello did to show off the new effect which could be achieved by
means of this magic. Mantegna rather uses perspective to create the stage on
which his figures seem to stand and move like solid tangible beings. He distributes
them as a skilled theatrical producer might have done, so as to convey the signifi-
cance of the moment and the course of the episode. We can see what is happening:
$
165. Francesco d’antonio del CHERico: The Annunciation arid Scenes from Dante’s Divine Comedy*
Page from a liturgical book, painted about 1485. Rome, Vatican
1 66. piero della Francesca: Constantine's Dream. Wall-painting in
the Church of S. Francesco, Arezzo. Painted about 1460
Tradition and Innovation: Italy 189
the procession escorting St. James has halted for a moment because one of the
persecutors has repented and has thrown himself at the feet of the saint, to receive
his blessing. The saint has turned rotind calmly to bless the man, while the Roman
soldiers stand by and watch, one of them impassively, the other lifting his hand in
an expressive gesture which seems to convey that he, too, is moved. The round of
the arch frames this scene and separates it from the turmoil of the watching crowds
pushed back by the guards.
While Mantegna was thus applying the new methods of art in northern Italy,
another great painter, Piero della Francesca (1416 ?-92), did the same in the region
south of Florence, in the towns of Arezzo and Urbino. Like Gozzoli’s and Mante-
gna’s frescoes, Piero della Francesca’s were painted shortly after the middle of the
fifteenth century, that is about a generation after Masaccio. The episode in Fig. 166
shows the famous legend of the dream which made the Emperor Constantine
accept the Christian faith. Before a crucial battle with his rival, he dreamt that an
angel showed him the Cross and said: ‘Under this sign you will be victorious’.
Piero’s fresco represents the scene at night in the Emperor’s camp before the battle.
We look into the open tent where the Emperor lies asleep on his camp bed. His
bodyguard sits by his side, while two soldiers are also keeping guard. This quiet
night scene is suddenly illuminated by a flash of light as an angel rushes down from
high Heaven holding the symbol of the Cross in his outstretched hand. As with
Mantegna, we are somewhat reminded of a scene in a play. There is a stage quite
clearly marked, and there is nothing to divert our attention from the essential action.
Like Mantegna, Piero has taken pains over the dress of his Roman legionaries and,
like him, he has avoided the gay and colourful details which Gozzoli crowded into
his scenes. Piero, too, had mastered the art of perspective completely, and the way
in which he shows the figure of the angel in foreshortening is so bold as to be almost
confusing, especially in a small reproduction. But to these geometrical devices of
suggesting the space of the stage, he has added a new one of equal importance:
the treatment of light. Medieval artists had taken hardly any notice at all of light.
Their flat figures cast no shadow. Masaccio had also been a pioneer in this respect —
the round and solid figures of his paintings were forcefully modelled in light and
shade (p. 164, Fig. 149). But no one had seen the immense new possibilities of this
more clearly than Piero della Francesca. In his picture, light not only helps to model
the forms of the figures, but is equal in importance to perspective in creating the
illusion of depth. The soldier in front stands like a dark silhouette before the
brightly lit opening of the tent. We thus feel the distance which separates the
soldiers from the steps on which the bodyguard is sitting, whose figure, in turn,
stands out in the flash of light that emanates from the angel. We are made to feel the
roundness of the tent, and the hollow it encloses, just as much by means of this
light as by foreshortening and perspective. But Piero lets light and shade perform an
M*
190 Tradition and Innovation: Italy
even greater miracle. They help him to create the mysterious atmosphere of the
scene in the depth of night when the Emperor had a vision which was to change
the course of history. This impressive simplicity and calm make Piero perhaps the
greatest heir of Masaccio.
While these and other artists were applying the inventions of the great generation
of Florentine masters, artists in Florence became increasingly aware of the new
problems that these inventions had created. In the first flush of triumph, they may
have thought that the discovery of perspective and the study of nature could solve
all difficulties which art presented. But we must not forget that art is altogether
different from science. The artist’s means, his technical devices, can be developed,
but art itself can hardly be said to progress in the way in which science progresses.
Each discovery in one direction creates a new difficulty somewhere else. We remem-
ber that medieval painters were unaware of the rules of correct draughtsmanship
but that this very shortcoming enabled them to distribute their figures over the
picture in any way they liked in order to create the perfect pattern. The twelfth-
century illustrated calendar (p. 129, Fig. 121), or the thirteenth-century relief of the
‘Death of the Virgin’ (p. 138, Fig. 128), are examples of this skill. Even fourteenth-
century painters like Simone Martini (p. 154, Fig. 141) were still able to arrange
their figures so that they formed a lucid design on the ground of gold. As soon as the
new concept of making the picture a mirror of reality was adopted, this question of
how to arrange the figures was no longer so easy to solve. In reality figures do not
group themselves harmoniously, nor do they stand out clearly against a neutral
background. In other words, there was a danger that the new power of the artist
would ruin his most precious gift of creating a pleasing and satisfying whole. The
problem was particularly serious where big altar-paintings and similar tasks con-
fronted the artist. These paintings had to be seen from afar and had to fit into the
architectural framework of the whole church. Moreover, they should present the
sacred story to the worshippers in a clear and impressive outline. Fig. 167 shows
the way in which a Florentine artist of the second half of the fifteenth century,
Antonio Pollaiuolo (1429-98), tried to solve this new problem of mak i n g a picture
both accurate in draughtsmanship and harmonious in composition. It is one of the
first attempts of its kind to solve this question, not by tact and instinct alone, but by
the application of definite rules. It may not be an altogether successful attempt, nor
is it a very attractive picture, but it clearly shows how deliberately the Florentine
artists set about it. The picture represents the martyrdom of St. Sebastian who is
tied to a stake while six executioners are grouped around him. This group forms a
very regular pattern in the form of a steep triangle. Each executioner on one side
is matched by a similar figure on the other side.
The arrangement, in fact, is so clear and symmetrical as to be almost too rigid.
The painter was obviously aware of this drawback and tried to introduce some
Tradition and Innovation: Italy 191
variety. One of the executioners bend-
ing down toadjust his crossbow is seen
from in front, the corresponding figure
from behind, and the same with the
shooting figures. In this simple way,
the painter has endeavoured to relieve
the rigid symmetry of the composition
and to introduce a sense of movement
and counter-movement very much as
in a piece of music. In Pollaiuolo’s
picture this device is still used rather
self-consciously and his composition
looks somewhat like an exercise. We
can imagine that he used the same
model, seen from different sides, for
the corresponding figures, and we feel
that his pride in his mastery of muscles
and movements has almost made him
forget the true subject of his picture.
Moreover, Pollaiuolo was hardly quite
successful in what he set out to do. It
is true that he applied the new art of
perspective to a wonderful picture of the Tuscan landscape in the background,
but the main theme and the background do not really blend. There is no path from
the hill in the foreground on which the martyrdom is enacted to the scenery behind.
One almost wonders whether Pollaiuolo would not have done better to place his
composition against something like a neutral or golden background, but one soon
realizes that this expedient was barred to him. Such vigorous and lifelike figures
would look out of place on a golden background. Once art had chosen the path of
vying with nature, there was no turning back. Pollaiuolo’s picture shows the kind of
problem that artists of the fifteenth century must have discussed in their studios. It
was by finding a solution to this problem that Italian art reached its greatest heights
a generation later.
Among the Florentine artists of the second half of the fifteenth century who strove
for a solution of this question was the painter Sandro Botticelli (1446-1510). One
of his most famous pictures represents not a Christian legend but a classical myth —
‘The Birth of Venus’ (Fig. 168). The classical poets had been known all through
the Middle Ages, but only at the time of the ‘Renaissance’, when the Italians tried
so passionately to recapture the former glory of Rome, did the classical myths
become popular among educated laymen. To these men, the mythology of the
167. ANTONIO POLLAIUOLO: The Martyrdom of
St. Sebastian. Altar-painting, 1475.
London, National Gallery
192
Tradition and Innovation: Italy
168. Botticelli: The Birth of Venus. Painted for the Villa of Lorenzo di
Pierfrancesco de* Medici, about 1485. Florence, Uffizi
admired Greeks and Romans represented something more than gay and pretty fairy-
tales. They were so convinced of the superior wisdom of the ancients that they be-
lieved these classical legends must contain some profound and mysterious truth. The
patron who commissioned the Botticelli painting for his country villa was a member
of the rich and powerful family of the Medici. Either he himself, or one of his learned
friends, probably explained to the painter what was known of the way the ancients
had represented Venus rising from the sea. To these scholars the story of her birth
was the symbol of the mystery through which the divine message of beauty came
into the world. One can imagine that the painter set to work reverently to represent
this myth in a worthy manner. The action of the picture is quickly understood.
Venus has emerged from the sea on a shell which is driven to the shore by flying
wind-gods amidst a shower of roses. As she is about to step on to the land, one of
the Hours or Nymphs receives her with a purple cloak. Botticelli has succeeded
where Pollaiuolo failed. His picture forms, in fact, a perfectly harmonious pattern.
But Pollaiuolo might have said that Botticelli had done so by sacrificing some of the
achievements he had tried so hard to preserve. Botticelli’s figures look less solid.
They are not so correctly drawn as Pollaiuolo’s or Masaccio’s. The graceful move-
ments and melodious lines of his composition recall the Gothic tradition of Ghiberti
and Fra Angelico, perhaps even the art of the fourteenth century — works such as
Simone Martini’s ‘Annunciation’ (p. 154, Fig. 141) or the French goldsmith’s
work (p. 151, Fig. 139), at which we remarked on the gentle sway of the body and
the exquisite fall of the drapery. Botticelli’s Venus is so beautiful that we do not
notice the unnatural length of her neck, the steep fall of her shoulders and the
193
queer way her left arm is hinged to the body. Or, rather, we should say that these
liberties which Botticelli took with nature in order to achieve a graceful outline add
to the beauty and harmony of the design because they enhance the impression of an
infinitely tender and delicate being, wafted to our shores as a gift from Heaven.
194 Tradition and Innovation: Italy
The rich merchant who commissioned this picture from Botticelli, Lorenzo di
Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, was also the employer of a Florentine who was destined
to give his name to a continent. It was in the service of his firm that Amerigo
Vespucci sailed to the New World. We have reached the period which later his-
torians selected as the ‘official’ end of the Middle Ages. We remember that in Italian
art there were various turning points that might be described as the beginning of a
new age — the discoveries of Giotto round about 1300, those of Brunelleschi round
about 1400. But even more important, perhaps, than these revolutions in method
was a gradual change that had come over art in the course of these two centuries. It
is a change that is more easily sensed than described. A comparison of the medieval
book illuminations discussed in the preceding chapters with a Florentine specimen
of that art made about 1485 (Fig. 165) might give an idea of the different spirit
in which the same art can be employed. It is not that the Florentine master lacked
reverence or devotion. But the very powers his art had gained made it impossible
for him to think of it only as a means to convey the meaning of the sacred story.
Rather did he want to use this power to turn the page into a gay display of wealth and
luxury. This function of art, to add to the beauty and graces of life, had never been
entirely forgotten. In the period we call the Italian Renaissance it came increasingly
to the fore.
170. Fresco painting and colour grinding .
From a Florentine print showing the
occupation of people born under
Mercury. About 1465
chapter 14 • TRADITION AND INNOVATION: II
The Fifteenth Century in the North
17 1. The * flamboyant * Gothic style: the Court of the Palace of Justice
(formerly Treasury). Rouen, 1482
W E have seen that the fifteenth century brought a decisive change in the
history of art because the discoveries and innovations of Brunelleschi’s
generation in Florence had lifted Italian art on to a new plane, and
had separated it from the development of art in the rest of Europe. The aims of
the northern artists of the fifteenth century did not, perhaps, differ so much from
those of the Italian fellow-artists as did their means and methods. The difference
between the north and Italy is perhaps most clearly marked in architecture.
Brunelleschi had put an end to the Gothic style in Florence by introducing the
Renaissance method of using classical motifs for his buildings. It was nearly a
century before the artists outside Italy followed his example. All through the
fifteenth century they continued developing the Gothic style of the preceding
century. But though the forms of these buildings still contained such typical
elements of Gothic architecture as the pointed arch or the flying buttress, the taste
of the times had greatly changed. We remember that in the fourteenth century
architects liked to use graceful lacework and rich ornamentation. We remember the
Decorated Style in which Exeter Cathedral was built (p. 149, Fig. 137). In the
172. 4 Perpendicular ' style:
King's College Chapel \ Cambridge .
Begun in 1446
196 Tradition and Innovation: the North
fifteenth century this taste for complicated
tracery and fantastic ornament went even
farther. Fig. X71, the Palace of Justice in
Rouen, is an example of this last phase of
French Gothic which is sometimes referred
to as the Flamboyant Style. We see how
the designers covered the whole building
with an infinite variety of decorations,
not, apparently, considering whether they
performed any function in the structure.
Some of these buildings have a fairy-tale
quality of infinite wealth and invention;
but one feels that in them the designers
had exhausted the last possibility of Gothic
building, and that a reaction was bound to
set in sooner or later. There are, in fact,
indications that even without the direct
influence of Italy the architects of the
north would have evolved a new style
of greater simplicity.
It is particularly in England that we can see these tendencies at work in the last
phase of the Gothic style which is known as the Perpendicular. This name was
invented to convey the character of late fourteenth- and fifteenth-century buildings
in England in whose decorations straight lines are more frequent than the curves
and arches of the earlier ‘decorated’ tracery. The most famous example of this
style is the wonderful chapel of King’s College in Cambridge (Fig. 172) which was
begun in 1446. The shape of this church is much more simple than those of earlier
Gothic interiors — there are no side-aisles, and therefore no pillars and no steep
arches. The whole makes the impression of a lofty hall rather than of a medieval
church. But while the general structure is thus more sober and perhaps more
worldly than that of the great cathedrals, the imagination of the Gothic craftsmen
is given free reign in the details, particularly in the form of the vault (‘fanvault’)
whose fantastic lacework of curves and lines recalls the miracles of Celtic and
Northumbrian manuscripts (p. 112, Fig. 103).
The development of painting and sculpture in the countries outside Italy rims
to a certain extent parallel with this development of architecture. In other words,
while the Renaissance had been victorious in Italy along the whole front, the north
in the fifteenth century remained still faithful to the Gothic tradition. Despite the
great innovations of the brothers Van Eyck, the practice of art continued to be a
matter of custom and usage rather than of science. The mathematical rules of
Tradition and Innovation: the North 197
perspective, the secrets of scientific anatomy, the study of Roman monuments did
not yet trouble the peace of mind of the northern masters. For this reason we may
say that they were still ‘medieval artists’, while their colleagues across the Alps
already belonged to the ‘modem era’. But the problems facing the artists on both
sides of the Alps were nevertheless strikingly similar. Van Eyck had taught them
how to make the picture a mirror of nature by carefully adding detail upon detail
until the whole frame was filled with painstaking observation (p, 171, Fig. 153;
p. 173, Fig. 154). But just as Fra Angelico and Benozzo Gozzoli in the south (p. 182,
Fig. 161; p. 184, Fig. 163) had used Masaccio’s innovations in the spirit of the
fourteenth century, so there were artists in the north who applied Van Eyck’s
discoveries to more traditional themes. The German painter Stefan Lochner
(1410 ?~5i), for instance, who worked in Cologne in the middle of the fifteenth
century, was somewhat like a northern Fra Angelico. His charming picture of the
Virgin in a rose-bower (Fig. 180), surrounded by little angels who make music,
scatter flowers, or offer fruit to the little Christ-child, shows that the master was
aware of the new methods of Jan van Eyck, just as Fra Angelico was aware of the
discoveries of Masaccio. And yet his picture is nearer in spirit to the fourteenth-
century Wilton diptych (p. 157, Fig. 143) than it is to Jan van Eyck. It may be inter-
esting to look back at the earlier example and compare the two works. We see at
once that the later master had learned one thing which had presented difficulties
to the earlier painter. Lochner could suggest the space in which the Virgin is
enthroned on the grass bank. Compared with his figures, those of the Wilton
diptych look a little flat. Lochner’s Holy Virgin still stands before a background
of gold, but in front of it there is a real stage. He has even added two charming
angels holding back the curtain, which seems to hang from the frame. It was
paintings like those by Lochner and Fra Angelico which first captured the imagina-
tion of the romantic critics of the nineteenth century, men such as Ruskin, and the
painters of the Pre-Raphaelite school. They saw in them all the charm of simple
devotion and a child-like heart. In a way they were right. These works are perhaps
so fascinating because for us, used to real space in pictures, and more or less correct
drawing, they arc easier to understand than the works of the earlier medieval
masters whose spirit they nevertheless preserved.
Other painters in the north correspond rather to Benozzo Gozzoli, whose frescoes
in the Medici Palace in Florence reflect the gay pageantry of the elegant world, in
the traditional spirit of the International Style. This applies particularly to the
painters who designed tapestries, and those who decorated the pages of precious
manuscripts. The page illustrated in Fig. 173 was painted towards the middle of
the fifteenth century, as were Gozzoli’s frescoes. In the background is the traditional
scene showing the author handing the finished book to his noble patron who had
ordered it. But the painter found this theme rather dull by itself. He therefore gave
198
Tradition and Innovation: the North
173. Tavernier: Dedication page to ‘ The Conquests of Charlemagne \
About 1460. Brussels, Bibliotheque Royalc
it the setting of a kind of entrance hall, and showed us the happenings all round.
Behind the city gate there is a party apparently making ready for the chase — at least
there is one rather dandyish figure carrying a falcon on his fist, while others stand
around like pompous burghers. We see the stalls and booths inside and in front of
the city gate, with the merchants displaying their goods and the buyers inspecting
them. It is a lifelike picture of a medieval city of the time. Nothing like it could have
been done a hundred years earlier, or, indeed, at any earlier time. We have to go
back to ancient Egyptian art to find pictures which portray the daily life of the
199
174- fouquet: Esrienne Chevalier > treasurer
of Charles VII of France , with St. Stephen .
Part of an altar painted about 1450 .
Berlin, Kaiser-Friedrich Museum
Tradition and Innovation: the North
people as faithfully as that; and even
the Egyptians did not look at their own
world with so much accuracy and humour.
It is the spirit of the drollery of which
we saw an example in ‘Queen Mary’s
Psalter’ (p. 153, Fig. 140) that came to
fruition in these charming portrayals of
daily life. Northern art, which was less
preoccupied with attaining ideal harmony
and beauty than Italian art, was to favour
this type of representation to an increasing
extent.
Nothing, however, would be more
wrong than to imagine that these two
‘schools* developed in watertight com-
partments. Of the leading French artist
of the period, Jean Fouquet (1420 ?-8o?)
we know in fact that he visited Italy in his youth. He had gone to Rome
where he painted the Pope in 1447. Fig. 174 shows a donor’s portrait which
he probably made a few years after his return. As in the Wilton diptych
(p. 157, Fig. 143), the saint protects the kneeling and praying figure of the donor.
As the donor’s name was Estienne (which is old French for Stephen), the saint by
his side is his patron, St. Stephen, who, as the first deacon of the Church, wears a
deacon’s robe. He carries a book and on it is a large sharp stone, for, according to
the Bible, St. Stephen was stoned. If we look back to the Wilton diptych, we see
once more what strides had been made by art in the representation of nature in less
than a century. The saints and donor of the Wilton diptych look as though they
were cut out of paper and placed upon the picture. Those of Jean Fouquet look
as if they had been modelled. In the earlier picture there is no trace of light and
shade. Fouquet uses light almost as Piero della Francesca had done (p. 188, Fig. 166).
The way in which these calm and statuesque figures stand as in a real space shows
that Fouquet had been deeply impressed by what he had seen in Italy. And yet, his
manner of painting is different from that of the Italians. The interest he takes in the
texture and surface of things — the fur, the stone, the cloth and the marble — shows
that his art remains indebted to the northern tradition of Jan van Eyck.
Another great northern artist who went to Rome (for a pilgrimage in 1450) was
Rogier van der Weyden (1400 ?-64). Very little is known about this master except
that he enjoyed great fame and lived in the southern Netherlands where Jan van
Eyck had also worked. Fig. 175 shows a large altar-painting which represents the
descent from the Cross. We see that Rogier, like Jan van Eyck, could faithfully
200
Tradition and Innovation: the North
175. rogier van der Weyden: The Descent from the Cross. Altar-painting.
About 1435. Escorial
reproduce every detail, every hair and every stitch. Nevertheless, his picture does
not represent a real scene. He has placed his figures on a kind of shallow stage
against a neutral background. Remembering Pollaiuolo’s problems (p. 191, Fig. 167)
we can appreciate the wisdom of Rogier’s decision. He, too, had to make a large
altar-painting to be seen from afar, and had to display the sacred theme to the faith-
ful in the church. It had to be clear in outline, and satisfying as a pattern. Rogier’s
picture fulfils these requirements without looking forced and self-conscious as does
Pollaiuolo’s. The body of Christ, which is turned full-face towards the beholder,
forms the centre of the composition. The weeping women frame it on both sides.
St. John, bending forward, like St. Mary Magdalen on the other side, tries in vain
to support the fainting Virgin, whose movement corresponds to that of Christ’s
descending body. The calm bearing of the old men forms an effective foil to the
expressive gestures of the principal actors. For they really seem like actors in a
mystery play or in a tableau vivant grouped or posed by an inspired producer who
had studied the great works of the medieval past and wanted to imitate them in his
own medium. In this way, by translating the main ideas of Gothic painting into the
new, life-like style, Rogier did a great service to northern art. He saved much of the
tradition of lucid design that might otherwise have been lost under the impact of
Jan van Eyck’s discoveries. Henceforward northern artists tried, each in his own
Tradition and Innovation: the North 201
way, to reconcile the new demands on
art with its old religious purpose.
We can study these efforts in a work
of one of the greatest Flemish artists of
the second half of the fifteenth century,
the painter Hugo van der Goes. He is
one of the few northern masters of this
early period of whom we know some
personal details. We hear that he spent
the last years of his life in voluntary
retirement in a monastery and that he
was haunted by feelings of guilt and
attacks of melancholy. There is indeed
something tense and serious in his art
that makes it very different from the
placid moods of Jan van Eyck. Fig. 176
shows his painting of the ‘Death of the
Virgin’. What strikes us first is the
admirable way in which the artist has
represented the varying reaction of the
twelve apostles to the event they are witnessing — the range of expression from
quiet brooding to passionate sympathy and almost indiscreet gaping. We best
gain a measure of Van der Goes’s achievement if we turn back to the illustration
of the same scene over the porch of Strasbourg Cathedral (p. 138, Fig. 128).
Compared to the painter’s many types, the apostles of the sculpture look very
much alike. And how easy it was for the earlier artist to arrange his figures
in a clear design ! He did not have to wrestle with foreshortening and the illusion
of a space as was expected of Van der Goes. We can feel the efforts of the painter
to conjure up a real scene before our eyes and yet to leave no part of the panel’s
surface empty and meaningless. The two apostles in the foreground and the
apparition over the bed show most clearly how he strove to spread his figures out
and display them before us. But this visible strain which makes the movements
look somewhat contorted also adds to the feeling of tense excitement that surrounds
the calm figure of the dying Virgin who, alone in the crowded room, is granted the
vision of her Son who is opening His arms to receive her.
For the sculptors and woodcarvers the survival of Gothic tradition in the new
form which Rogier had given to it proved of particular importance. Fig. 177 showo
a carved altar which was commissioned for the Polish city of Cracow in 1477 (two
years after Pollaiuolo’s altar-painting of p. 191, Fig. 167). Its master was Veit Stoss,
who lived for the greater part of his life in Nuremberg in Germany and died there
176. HUGO VAN DER goes: The Death of the
Virgin. Altar-painting. About 1480.
Bruges, Museum
202
Tradition and Innovation: the North
177. veit stoss: Altar of the Church of Our Lady , Cracozv . 1477-89
at a very advanced age in 1533. Even on the small illustration we can see the value
of a lucid design. For like the members of the congregation who stood far away
we are able to read off the meaning of the main scenes without difficulty. The group
of the shrine in the centre shows again the death of the Virgin Mary, surrounded by
the twelve apostles, though this time she is not represented lying on a bed but
kneeling in prayer. Farther up we see her soul being received into a radiant Heaven
by Christ, and quite on top we watch her being crowned by God the Father and His
Tradition and Innovation: the North 203
Son. All the wings of the altar represent important moments in the life of the Virgin,
which (together with her crowning) were known as the Seven Joys of Mary. The
cycle begins on the left top square with the Annunciation ; it continues further down
with the Nativity and the Adoration of the Magi. On the right-hand wing we find
the remaining three joyous moments after so much sorrow — the Resurrection of
Christ, His Ascension and the Outpouring of the Holy Ghost at Whitsun. All these
stories the faithful could contemplate when they were assembled in church on a
Feast Day of the Virgin (the other sides of the wings were adapted to other feast
days). But only if they could approach close to the shrine could they admire the
truthfulness and expressiveness of Veit Stoss’s art in the wonderful heads and hands
of his apostles (Fig. 179).
In the middle of the fifteenth century a very decisive technical invention had been
made in Germany, which had a tremendous effect on the future development of art,
and not of art alone — the invention of printing. The printing of pictures had pre-
ceded the printing of books by several decades. Small leaflets, with images of saints
and the text of prayers, had been printed for distribution among pilgrims and for
private devotion. The method of printing these images was simple enough. It was
the same as was later developed for the printing of letters. You took a wood-block
and cut away with a knife everything that should not appear on the print. In other
words, everything that was to look
white in the final product was to be
cut hollow and everything that was to
look black was left standing in narrow
ridges. The result looked like any
rubber stamp we use today, and the
principle of printing it on to paper was
practically the same: you covered the
surface with printer’s ink made of oil
and soot and pressed it on to the leaflet.
You could make a good many impres-
sions from one block before it wore
out. This simple technique of printing
pictures is called woodcut. It was a
very cheap method and soon became
popular. Several wood-blocks together
could be used for a little series of pic-
tures bound together as a book; these
books printed from whole blocks were
Called block-books. Woodcuts and I 7 8 - The good man on his death-bed.
t % Woodcut illustration for the Art of Dying Well
block-books were soon on sale at printed in uim about 1470
204 Tradition and Innovation: the North
popular fairs; playing-cards were made in this way; there were humorous pictures
and prints for devotional use. Fig. 178 shows a page from one of these early block-
books, which was used by the Church as a picture-sermon. Its purpose was to
remind the faithful of the hour of death and to teach them — as the title says — ‘The
art of dying well’. The woodcut shows the pious man on his death-bed with the
monk by his side putting a lighted candle into his hand. An angel is receiving his
soul which has come out of his mouth in the shape of a little praying figure. In the
background we see Christ and His saints, towards whom the dying man should turn
his mind. In the foreground we see a host of devils in the most ugly and fantastic
shapes, and the inscriptions which come out of their mouths tell us what they say :
‘I am raging’, ‘We are disgraced’, ‘I am dumbfounded’, ‘This is no comfort’,
‘We have lost this soul’. Their grotesque antics are in vain. The man who possesses
the art of dying well need not fear the powers of hell.
When Gutenberg made his great invention of using movable letters held together
by a frame, instead of whole wood-blocks, such block-books became obsolete. But
methods were soon found of combining a printed text with a wood-block for illus-
tration, and many books of the later half of the fifteenth century were illustrated
with woodcuts.
For all its usefulness, however, the woodcut was a rather crude way of printing
pictures. It is true that this crudeness itself is sometimes effective. The quality of
chese popular prints of the late Middle Ages reminds one sometimes of our best
posters — they are simple in outline and economical in their means. But the great
artists of the period had rather different ambitions. They wanted to show their
mastery of detail and their powers of observation, and for this the woodcut was not
suitable. These masters, therefore, chose another medium which gave more subtle
effects. Instead of wood, they used copper. The principle of the copperplate
engraving is a litde different from the woodcut. In the woodcut you cut away every-
thing except the lines you want to show. In the engraving you take a special tool,
called a burin, and press it into the copperplate. The line which you thus engrave
into the surface of the metal will hold any colour or printer’s ink you spread over
the surface. What you do, therefore, is to cover your engraved copperplate with
printer’s ink and then to wipe the blank metal clean. If then you press the
plate very hard against a piece of paper, the ink which had remained in the lines
cut by the burin is squeezed on to the paper, and the print is ready. In other
words, the copper-engraving is really a negative of the woodcut. The woodcut is
made by leaving the lines standing, the engraving by cutting them into the plate.
Now, however hard it may be to handle the burin firmly and to control the depth
and strength of your lines, it is clear that, once you have mastered this craft, you
can obtain much more detail and much more subtle effect from a copper-engraving
than you can from a woodcut. One of the greatest and most famous masters of
I 79 « VEIT STOSS: Head of an Apostle. Detail of Fig. 177
180. STEFAN lochner: The Virgin in the Rose-bower . Painted about 1440.
Cologne, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum
Tradition and Innovation : the North 20 j
engraving in the fifteenth century was
Martin Schongauer (1453 ?-9i), who lived
on the Upper Rhine at Colmar, in the pre-
sent Alsace. Fig. 18 1 shows Schongauer’s
engraving of the Holy Night. The scene
is interpreted in the spirit of the great
masters of the Netherlands. Like them,
Schongauer was anxious to convey every
little homely detail of the scene, and to
make us feel the very texture and surfaces
of the objects he represents. That he
should have succeeded in doing so with-
out the help of brush and colour, and
without the medium of oil, borders on
the miraculous. One can look at his en-
gravings through a magnifying glass and
study the way he characterizes the broken
stones and bricks, the flowers in the crags,
the ivy creeping along the vault, the fur
of the animals and the stubbly chins of
the shepherds. But it is not only his
patience and craftsmanship we must admire. We can enjoy his tale of Christmas
without any knowledge of the difficulties of working with the burin. There is
the Virgin kneeling in the ruined chapel which is used as a stable. She kneels
in adoration of the Child whom she has carefully placed on the comer of her
coat; and St. Joseph, lantern in hand, looks at her with a worried and fatherly
expression. The ox and the ass are worshipping with her. The humble shepherds
are just about to cross the threshold; one of them, in the background, receives
the message from the angel. Up in the right-hand corner we have a glimpse
of the heavenly chorus singing ‘Peace on Earth’. In themselves, these motifs
are all deeply rooted in the tradition of Christian art, but the way in which
they are combined and distributed over the page was Schongauer’s own. The
problems of composition for the printed page and for the altar-picture are in some
respects similar. In both cases, the suggestion of space and the faithful imitation
of reality must not be allowed to destroy the balance of the composition. It is only
if we think of this problem that we can fully appreciate Schongauer’s achievement.
We now understand why he has chosen a ruin as setting — it allowed him to frame
the scene solidly with the pieces of broken masonry that form the opening through
which we look. It enabled him to place a black foil behind the principal figures and
to leave no part of the engraving empty or without interest. We can see how
N
18 1 . schongauer: Holy Night. Engraving.
About 1475
208 Tradition and Innovation: the North
carefully he planned his composition if we lay two diagonals across the page: they
meet at the head of the Virgin, which is the true centre of the print.
The art of the woodcut and of engraving soon spread all over Europe. There are
engravings in the manner of Mantegna and Botticelli in Italy, and others from the
Netherlands and France. These prints became yet another means through which
the artists of Europe learned of each other’s ideas. At that time it was not yet consi-
dered dishonourable to take over an idea or a composition from another artist, and
many of the humbler masters made use of engravings as pattern books from which
they borrowed. Just as the invention of printing hastened the exchange of ideas
without which the Reformation might never have come about, so the printing of
images ensured the triumph of the art of the Italian Renaissance in the rest of
Europe. It was one of the forces which put an end to the medieval art of the north,
and brought about a crisis in the art of these countries which only the greatest
masters could overcome.
182. Stone-masons and the King. From an illumination of the story of Troy by jean colombe.
About 1464. Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett
chapter 15 • HARMONY ATTAINED
Tuscany and Rome, Early Sixteenth Century
183. A Chapel of the High Renaissance: the Tcmpietto , Rome , 6\ Pietro in
Mottiorio . Designed by bramante, 1502
W E left Italian art at the time of Botticelli, that is, at the end of the
fifteenth century, which the Italians by an awkward trick of language
call the Quattrocento, that is to say, the ‘four hundreds’. The beginning
of the sixteenth century, the Cinquecento, is the most famous period of Italian art,
one of the greatest periods of all time. This was the time of Leonardo da Vinci and
210 Harmony Attained
Michelangelo, of Raphael and Titian, of Correggio and Giorgione, of Diirer and
Holbein in the North, and of many other famous masters. One may well ask why it
was that all these great masters were born in the same period, but such questions
are more easily asked than answered. One cannot explain the existence of genius.
It is better to enjoy it. What we have to say, therefore, can never be a full explana-
tion of the great period which is called the High Renaissance, but we can try to see
what the conditions were which made this sudden efflorescence of genius possible.
We have seen the beginning of these conditions far back in the time of Giotto,
whose fame was so great that the Commune of Florence was proud of him and
anxious to have the steeple of their cathedral designed by that widely renowned
master. This pride of the cities, which vied with each other in securing the services
of the greatest artists to beautify their buildings and to create works of lasting fame,
was a great incentive to the masters to outdo each other — an incentive which did
not exist to the same extent in the feudal countries of the north, whose cities had
much less independence and local pride. Then came the period of the great dis-
coveries, when Italian artists turned to mathematics to study the laws of perspective,
and to anatomy to study the build of the human body. Through these discoveries,
the artist’s horizon widened. He was no longer a craftsman among craftsmen, ready
to carry out commissions for shoes, or cupboards, or paintings as the case may be.
He was a master in his own right, who could not achieve fame and glory without
exploring the mysteries of nature and probing into the secret laws of the universe.
It was natural that the leading artists who had these ambitions felt aggrieved at
their social status. This was still the same as it had been at the time of ancient
Greece, when the snobs might have accepted a poet who worked with his brain, but
never an artist who worked with his hands. Here was another challenge for the
artists to meet, another spur which urged them on towards yet greater achievements
that would compel the surrounding world to accept them, not only as respectable
heads of prosperous workshops, but as men of unique and precious gifts. It was a
difficult struggle, which was not immediately successful. Social snobbery and
prejudice were strong forces, and there were many who would gladly have invited to
their tables a scholar who spoke Latin, and knew the right turn of phrase for every
occasion, but would have hesitated to extend a similar privilege to a painter or a
sculptor. It was again the love of fame on the part of the patrons which helped the
artists to break down such prejudices. There were many small courts in Italy which
were badly in need of honour and prestige. To erect magnificent buildings, to com-
mission splendid tombs, to order great cycles of frescoes, or dedicate a painting for
the high altar of a famous church, was considered a sure way of perpetuating one’s
name and securing a worthy monument to one’s earthly existence. As there were
many centres competing for the services of the most renowned masters, the masters
in turn could dictate their terms. In earlier times it was the prince who bestowed
Harmony Attained 211
his favours on the artist. Now it almost came to pass that the roles were reversed,
and that the artist granted a favour to a rich prince or potentate by accepting a
commission from him. Thus it came about that the artists could frequently choose
the kind of commission which they liked, and that they no longer needed to
accommodate their works to the whims and fancies of their employers. Whether or
not this new power was an unmixed blessing for art in the long run is difficult to
decide. But at first, at any rate, it had the effect of a liberation which released a
tremendous amount of pent-up energy. At last, the artist was free.
In no sphere was the effect of this change so marked as in architecture. Since the
time of Brunelleschi (p. 162) the architect had to have some of the knowledge of
a classical scholar. He had to know the rules of the ancient ‘orders’, of the right
proportions and measurements of the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns and
entablatures. He had to measure ancient ruins, and pore over the manuscripts
of classical writers like Vitruvius who had codified the conventions of the Greek
and Roman architects, and whose works contained many difficult and obscure
passages, which challenged the ingenuity of Renaissance scholars. In no other
field was the conflict between the requirements of the patrons and the ideals of the
artists more apparent than in this field of architecture. What these learned masters
really longed to do was to build temples and triumphal arches — what they were
asked to do was to build city palaces and churches. We have seen how a com-
promise was reached in this fundamental conflict by artists such as Alberti (p. 180,
Fig. 159) who wedded the ancient ‘orders’ to the modem city palace. But the
true aspiration of the Renaissance architect was still to design a building irrespec-
tive of its use; simply for the beauty of its proportions, the spaciousness of its
interior and the imposing grandeur of its ensemble. They craved for a perfect
symmetry and regularity such as they could not achieve while concentrating on
the practical requirements of an ordinary building. It was a memorable moment
when one of them found a mighty patron willing to sacrifice tradition and expe-
diency for the sake of the fame he would acquire by erecting a stately structure that
would outshine the seven wonders of the world. Only in this way can we understand
the decision of Pope Julius II in 1506 to pull down the venerable Basilica of St.
Peter which stood at the place where, according to the legend, St. Peter lay buried
and to have it built anew in a manner which defied the age-old traditions of
church building and the usages of Divine service. The man to whom he entrusted
this task was Donato Bramante (1444-1514), an ardent champion of the new style.
One of the few of his buildings which have survived intact shows how far Bramante
had gone in absorbing the ideas and standards of classical architecture without
becoming a slavish imitator (Fig. 183). It is a chapel, or ‘little temple’ as he called
it, which should have been surrounded by a cloister in the same style. It is a little
pavilion, a round building on steps, crowned by a cupola and ringed round by a
212 Harmony Attained
colonnade of the Doric order. The balustrade on top of the cornice adds a light and
graceful touch to the whole building, and the small structure of the actual chapel and
the decorative colonnade are held in a harmony as perfect as that in any temple of
classical antiquity.
To this master, then, the Pope had given the task to design the new church of
St. Peter, and it was understood that this should become a true marvel of Christen-
dom. Bramante was determined to disregard the Western tradition of a thousand
years, according to which a church of this kind should be an oblong hall with the
worshippers looking eastwards towards the main altar where Mass is read.
In his craving for that regularity and harmony that alone could be worthy of the
place, he designed a square church with chapels symmetrically arranged round a
gigantic cross-shaped hall. This hall was to be crowned by a huge cupola resting on
colossal arches. Bramante hoped, it was said, to combine the effects of the largest
ancient building, whose towering ruins still impressed the visitor to Rome, with that
of the Pantheon (p. 80, Fig. 73). For one brief moment, admiration for the art of
the ancients and ambition to create something unheard of overruled considerations
of expediency and time-honoured traditions. But Bramante’s plan for St. Peter’s
was not destined to be carried out. The enormous building swallowed up so much
money that, in trying to raise sufficient funds, the Pope precipitated the crisis which
led to the Reformation. It was the practice of selling indulgences against contribu-
tions for the building of that church that led Luther in Germany to his first public
protest. Even within the Catholic Church, opposition to Bramante’s plan increased,
and by the time the building had progressed sufficiently, the idea of a circular
church was abandoned. St. Peter’s, as we know it today, has little in common with
the original plan, except its gigantic dimensions.
The spirit of bold enterprise which made Bramante’s plan for St. Peter’s possible
is characteristic of the period of the High Renaissance, the period round about 1500
which produced so many of the world’s greatest artists. To these men nothing
seemed impossible, and that may be the reason why they did sometimes achieve the
apparently impossible. Once more, it was Florence which gave birth to some of the
leading minds of that great epoch. Since the days of Giotto round about 1300, and of
Masaccio round about 1400, Florentine artists cultivated their tradition with special
pride, and their excellence was recognized by all people of taste. We shall see that
nearly all the greatest artists grew out of such a firmly established tradition, and
that is why we should not forget the humbler masters in whose workshops they
learned the elements of their craft.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-15 19), the oldest of these famous masters, was born in
a Tuscan village. He was apprenticed to a leading Florentine workshop, that of the
painter and sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-88). Verrocchio’s fame was
very great, so great indeed that the city of Venice commissioned from him the
213
Harmony Attained
monument to Bartolomeo Colleoni, one of
their generals to whom they owed gratitude
for a number of charities he had founded
rather than for any particular deed of
military prowess. The equestrian statue
which Verrocchio made (Fig. 184) shows
that he was a worthy heir to the tradition of
Donatello. We see how minutely he studied
the anatomy of the horse, and how clearly
he observed the position of the muscles and
veins. But most admirable of all is the
posture of the horseman, who seems to be
riding ahead of his troops with an expression
of bold defiance. Later times have made us
so familiar with these riders of bronze that
have come to people our towns and cities,
representing more or less worthy emperors,
kings, princes and generals, that it may take
us some time to realize the greatness and
simplicity of Verrocchio’s work. It lies in
the clear outline which his group presents
from nearly all aspects, and in the concen-
trated energy which seems to animate the
man in armour and his mount.
In a workshop capable of producing such
masterpieces, the young Leonardo could
certainly learn many things. He would be
introduced into the technical secrets of
foundry-work and other metalwork, he
would learn to prepare pictures and statues
carefully by making studies from the nude and from draped models. He would
learn to study plants and curious animals for inclusion in his pictures, and he
would receive a thorough grounding in the optics of perspective, and in the use
of colours. In the case of any other gifted boy, this training would have been suffi-
cient to make a respectable artist, and many good painters and sculptors did in fact
emerge from Verrocchio’s prosperous workshop. But Leonardo was more than a
gifted boy. He was a genius whose powerful mind will always remain an object of
wonder and admiration to ordinary mortals. We know something of the range and
productivity of Leonardo’s mind because his pupils and admirers carefully pre-
served for us his sketches and notebooks, thousands of pages covered with writings
184. Verrocchio: Monument to Colleoni ,
Venice. Begun in 1479
214 Harmony Attained
and drawings, with excerpts from books
Leonardo read, and drafts for books he
intended to write. The more one reads of
these papers, the less can one understand
how one human being could have excelled
in all these different fields of research and
made important contributions to nearly all
of them. Perhaps one of the reasons is that
Leonardo was a Florentine artist and not a
trained scholar. He thought that the artist’s
business was to explore the visible world
just as his predecessors had done, only more
thoroughly and with greater intensity and
accuracy. He was not interested in the
bookish knowledge of the scholars. Like
Shakespeare, he probably had ‘little Latin
and less Greek’. At a time when the learned
men at the universities relied on the
authority of the admired ancient writers,
Leonardo, the painter, would trust nothing
but his own eyes. Whenever he came
across a problem, he did not consult the authorities but tried an experiment to solve
it. There was nothing in nature which did not arouse his curiosity and challenge
his ingenuity. He explored the secrets of the human body by dissecting more than
thirty corpses (Fig. 185). He was one of the first to probe into the mysteries of the
growth of the child in the womb ; he investigated the laws of waves and currents ; he
spent years in observing and analysing the flight of insects and birds, which was to
help him to devise a flying machine which he was sure would one day become a reality.
The forms of rocks and clouds, the effect of the atmosphere on the colour of distant
objects, the laws governing the growth of trees and plants, the harmony of sounds,
all these were the objects of his ceaseless research, which was to be the foundation
of his art. His contemporaries looked upon Leonardo as a strange and rather un-
canny being. Princes and generals wanted to use this astonishing wizard as a military
engineer for the building of fortifications and canals, of novel weapons and devices.
In times of peace, he would entertain them with mechanical toys of his own inven-
tion, and with the designing of new effects for stage performances and pageantries.
He was admired as a great artist, and sought after as a splendid musician, but, for
all that, few people can have had an inkling of the importance of his ideas or the
extent of his knowledge. The reason is that Leonardo never published his writings,
and that very few can even have known of their existence. He was left-handed, and
185. LEONARDO da vinci: Anatomical Studies
( larynx and leg). 1510. Windsor Castle,
Royal Library
Harmony Attained 215
had taken to writing from right to left so that his notes can only be read in a mirror.
It is possible that he was afraid of divulging his discoveries for fear that his opinions
would be found heretical. Thus we find in his writings the five words ‘The sun does
not move’, which show that Leonardo anticipated the theories of Copernicus
which were later to bring Galileo into trouble. But it is also possible that he under-
took his researches and experiments simply because of his insatiable curiosity, and
that, once he had solved a problem for himself, he was apt to lose interest because
there were so many other mysteries still to be explored. Most of all, it is likely that
Leonardo himself had no ambition to be considered a scientist. All this exploration
of nature was to him first and foremost a means of gaining knowledge of the visible
world, such as he would need for his art. He thought that by placing it on scientific
foundations he could transform his beloved art of painting from a humble craft into
an honoured and gentlemanly pursuit. To us, this preoccupation with the social rank
of artists may be difficult to understand, but we have seen what importance it had
for the men of the period. Perhaps if we remember Shakespeare's Midsummer
Night's Dream and the roles he assigns to Snug the joiner, Bottom the weaver, and
Snout the tinker, we can understand the background of this struggle. Aristotle had
codified the snobbishness of classical antiquity in distinguishing between certain
arts that were compatible with a ‘liberal education' (the so-called Liberal Arts such
as rhetorics, grammar, philosophy and dialectic) and pursuits that involved working
with the hands, which were ‘manual’ and therefore ‘menial’, and thus below the
dignity of a gentleman. It was the ambition of such men as Leonardo to show that
painting was a Liberal Art, and that the manual labour involved in it was no more
essential than was the labour of writing in poetry. It is possible that this view often
affected Leonardo’s relationship with his patrons. Perhaps he did not want to be
considered the owner of a shop where anyone could commission a picture. At any
rate, we know that Leonardo often failed to carry out his commissions. He would
start on a painting and leave it unfinished, despite the urgent requests of the patron.
Moreover, he obviously insisted that it was he himself who had to decide when a
work of his was to be considered finished, and he refused to let it go out of his hands
unless he was satisfied with it. It is not surprising, therefore, that few of Leonardo’s
works were ever completed, and that his contemporaries regretted the way in which
this outstanding genius seemed to fritter away his time, moving restlessly from
Florence to Milan, from Milan to Florence and to the service of the notorious
adventurer Cesare Borgia, then to Rome, and finally to the court of King Francis I
in France, where he died in the year 1519, more admired than understood.
By a singular misfortune, the few works which Leonardo did complete in his
mature years have come down to us in a very bad state of preservation.Thus when
we look at what remains of Leonardo’s famous wall-painting of the ‘Last Supper’
(Fig. 186) we must try to imagine how it may have appeared to the monks for whom
i86. Leonardo da vinci: The Last Supper. Wall-painting in the Refectory of the Monastery
of Sta Maria delle Grazie, Milan. Between 1495 and 1498
it was painted. The painting covers one wall of an oblong hall that was used as a
dining-room by the monks of the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan.
One must visualize what it was like when the painting was uncovered, and when,
side by side with the long tables of the monks, there appeared the table of Christ
and his apostles. Never before had the sacred episode appeared so close and so
lifelike. It was as if another hall had been added to theirs, in which the Last Supper
had assumed tangible form. How clear the light fell on to the table, and how it
added roundness and solidity to the figures. Perhaps the monks were first struck
by the truth to nature with which all details were portrayed, the dishes on the
table-cloth, and the folds of the draperies. Then, as now, works of art were often
judged by laymen according to their degree of lifelikness. But that can only
have been the first reaction. Once they had sufficiently admired this extraordinary
illusion of reality, the monks would turn to the way in which Leonardo had pre-
sented the biblical story. There was nothing in this work that resembled older
representations of the same theme. In these traditional versions, the apostles were
seen sitting quiedy at the table in a row — only Judas being segregated from the
rest — while Christ was calmly dispensing the Sacrament. The new picture was very
different from any of these paintings. There was drama in it, and excitement.
Leonardo, like Giotto before him, had gone back to the text of the Scriptures, and
had striven to visualize what it must have been like when Christ said, ‘ “Verily I say
unto you, that one of you shall betray me”, and they were exceeding sorrowful and
began every one of them to say unto him “Lord, is it I ?” ’ (Matthew xxvi. 21-2).
The gospel of St. John adds that ‘Now there was leaning on Jesus’ bosom one of
Harmony Attained 217
his disciples, whom Jesus loved. Simon Peter therefore beckoned to him that he
should ask who it should be of whom he spake’ (John xiii. 23-4). It is this
questioning and beckoning that brings movement into the scene. Christ has just
spoken the tragic words, and those on his side shrink back in terror as they hear the
revelation. Some seem to protest their love and innocence, others gravely to
dispute whom the Lord may have meant, others again seem to look to Him for an
explanation of what He has said. St. Peter, most impetuous of all, rushes towards
St. John, who sits to the right of Jesus. As he whispers something into St. John’s
ear, he inadvertently pushes Judas forward. Judas is not segregated from the rest,
and yet he seems isolated. He alone does not gesticulate and question. He bends for-
ward and looks up in suspicion or anger, a dramatic contrast to the figure of Christ
sitting calm and resigned amidst this surging turmoil. One wonders how long it took
the first spectators to realize the consummate art by which all this dramatic move-
ment was controlled. Despite the excitement which Christ’s words have caused,
there is nothing chaotic in the picture. The twelve apostles seem to fall quite
naturally into four groups of three, linked to each other by gestures and movements.
There is so much order in this variety, and so much variety in this order, that one
can never quite exhaust the harmonious interplay of movement and answering
movement. Perhaps we can only fully appreciate Leonardo’s achievement in this
composition if we think back to the problem we discussed in the description of
Pollaiuolo’s ‘St. Sebastian’ (p. 191, Fig. 167). We remember how the artists of that
generation had struggled to combine the demands of realism with that of design.
We remember how rigid and artificial Pollaiuolo’s solution of this problem looked to
us. Leonardo, who was little younger than Pollaiuolo, had solved it with apparent
ease. If one forgets for a moment what the scene represents, one can still enjoy the
beautiful pattern formed by the figures. The composition seems to have that effortless
balance and harmony which it had in Gothic paintings, and which artists like Rogier
van der Weyden and Botticelli, each in his own way, had tried to recapture for art.
But Leonardo did not find it necessary to sacrifice correctness of drawing, or accu-
racy of observation, to the demands of a satisfying outline. If one forgets the beauty of
the composition, one suddenly feels confronted with a piece of reality as convincing
and striking as any we saw in the works of Masaccio or Donatello. And even this
achievement hardly touches upon the true greatness of the work. For, beyond such
technical matters as composition and draughtsmanship, we must admire Leonardo’s
deep insight into the behaviour and reactions of men, and the power of imagination
which enabled him to put the scene before our eyes. An eye-witness tells us that he
often saw Leonardo at work on the ‘Last Supper’. He would get on to the scaffolding
and stand there for a whole day, just thinking, without painting a single stroke. It is
the result of this thought that he has bequeathed to us, and, even in its ruined state,
‘The Last Supper’ remains one of the great miracles wrought by human genius.
218
Harmony Attained
187. LEONARDO da VINCI: Mona Lisa. About 1502. Paris, Louvre
There is another work of Leonardo’s which is perhaps even more famous than
‘The Last Supper’. It is the portrait of a Florentine lady whose name was Lisa,
‘Mona Lisa’ (Fig. 187). A fame as great as that of Leonardo’s ‘Mona Lisa’ is
not an unmixed blessing for a work of art. We become so used to seeing it on
picture postcards, and even advertisements, that we find it difficult to see it with
fresh eyes as the painting of a real man portraying a real person of flesh and blood.
But it is worth while to forget what we know, or believe we know, about the picture,
and to look at it as if we were the first people ever to set eyes on it. What strikes us
first is the amazing degree to which Lisa looks alive. She really seems to look at us
and to have a mind of her own. Like a living being, she seems to change before our
eyes and to look a little different every time we come back to her. Even in photographs
Harmony Attained 219
of the picture we experience this strange effect, but in front of the original in
the Paris Louvre it is almost uncanny. Sometimes she seems to mock at us, and
then again we seem to catch something like sadness in her smile. All this sounds
rather mysterious, and so it is; that is the effect of every great work of art. Neverthe-
less, Leonardo certainly knew how he achieved this effect, and by what means.
That great observer of nature knew more about the way we use our eyes than
anybody who had ever lived before him. He had clearly seen a problem which the
conquest of nature had posed to the artists — a problem no less intricate than the
one of combining correct drawing with a harmonious composition. The great works
of the Italian Quattrocento masters who followed the lead given by Masaccio have
one thing in common : their figures look somewhat hard and harsh, almost wooden.
The strange thing is that it clearly is not lack of patience or lack of knowledge that
is responsible for this effect. No one could be more patient in his imitation of nature
than Van Eyck (p. 173, Fig. 154); no one could know more about correct drawing
and perspective than Mantegna (p. 186, Fig. 164). And yet, for all the grandeur and
impressiveness of their representations of nature, their figures look more like statues
than living beings. The reason may be that the more conscientiously we copy a
figure line by line and detail by detail, the less we can imagine that it ever really
moved and breathed. It looks as if the painter had suddenly cast a spell over it, and
forced it to stand stock-still for evermore, like the people in ‘The Sleeping Beauty’.
Artists had tried various ways out of this difficulty. Botticelli, for instance (p. 192,
Fig. 168), had tried to emphasize in his pictures the waving hair and the fluttering
garments of his figures, to make them look less rigid in outline. But only Leonardo
found the true solution to the problem. The painter must leave the beholder some-
thing to guess. If the outlines are not quite so firmly drawn, if the form is left a
ittle vague, as though disappearing into a shadow, this impression of dryness and
stiffness will be avoided. This is Leonardo’s famous invention which the Italians
call ‘ sfumato ’ — the blurred outline and mellowed colours that allow one form to
merge with another and always leave something to our imagination. If we now
return to the ‘Mona Lisa’, we may understand something of its mysterious effect.
We see that Leonardo has used the means of his ‘ sfumato ’ with the utmost delibera-
tion. Everyone who has ever tried to draw or scribble a face knows that what we call
its expression rests mainly in two features : the corners of the mouth, and the corners
of the eyes. Now it is precisely these parts which Leonardo has left deliberately
indistinct, by letting them merge into a soft shadow. That is why we are never
quite certain in what mood Mona Lisa is really looking at us. Her expression always
seems just to elude us. It is not only vagueness, of course, which produces this
effect. There is much more behind it. Leonardo has done a very daring thing,
which perhaps only a painter of his consummate mastership could risk. If we look
carefully at the picture, we see that the two sides do not quite match. This is most
220 Harmony Attained
obvious in the fantastic dream landscape in the background. The horizon on the left
side seems to lie much lower than the one on the right. Consequendy, when we focus
the left side of the picture, the woman looks somehow taller or more erect than if we
focus the right side. And her face, too, seems to change with this change of position,
because, even here, the two sides do not quite match. But with all these sophisticated
tricks, Leonardo might have produced a clever piece of jugglery rather than a great
work of art, had he not known exacdy how far he could go, and had he not counter-
balanced his daring deviation from nature by an almost miraculous rendering of the
living flesh. Look at the way in which he modelled the hand, or the sleeves with their
minute folds. Leonardo could be as painstaking as any of his forerunners in the
patient observation of nature. Only he was no longer merely the faithful servant of
nature. Long ago, in the distant past, people had looked at portraits with awe, be-
cause they had thought that in preserving the likeness the artist could somehow
preserve the soul of the person he portrayed. Now the great scientist, Leonardo, had
made some of the dreams and fears of these first image-makers come true. He knew
the spell which would infuse life into the colours spread by his magic brush.
The second great Florentine whose work makes Italian art of the sixteenth
century ( Cinquecento ) so famous was Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564).
Michelangelo was twenty-three years younger than Leonardo and survived him by
forty-five years. In his long lifetime he witnessed a complete change in the position
of the artist. To some degree it was he himself who brought about this change.
In his youth Michelangelo was trained like any other craftsman. As a boy of thirteen
he was apprenticed for three years to the busy workshop of one of the leading
masters of late Quattrocento Florence, the painter Domenico Ghirlandajo (1449-94).
Ghirlandajo was one of those masters whose works we enjoy rather for the way in
which they mirror the colourful life of the period than for any outstanding artistic
merit. He knew how to tell the sacred story pleasantly, as if it had just happened
among the rich Florentine citizens of the Medici circle who were his patrons.
Fig. 188 represents the birth of the Virgin Mary, and we see the relatives of her
mother, St. Anne, coming to visit and congratulate her. We look into a fashionable
apartment of the late fifteenth century, and witness the formal visit of well-to-do
ladies of society. Ghirlandajo proved that he knew how to arrange his groups effec-
tively and how to give pleasure to the eye. He showed that he shared the taste of his
contemporaries for the themes of ancient art, for he took care to depict a relief of
dancing children, in the classical manner, in the background of the room.
In his workshop the young Michelangelo could certainly learn all the technical
tricks of the trade, a solid technique of painting frescoes, and a thorough grounding
in draughtsmanship. But, as far as we know, Michelangelo did not enjoy his days
in this successful painter’s firm. His ideas about art were different. Instead of
acquiring the facile manner of Ghirlandajo, he went out to study the work of the
Harmony Attained 221
188. ghirlandajo: Birth of the Virgin. Wall-painting in the church of Sta Maria
Novella, Florence. Completed in 1491
great masters of the past, of Giotto, Masaccio, Donatello, and of the Greek and
Roman sculptors whose works he could see in the Medici collection. He tried to
penetrate into the secrets of the ancient sculptors, who knew how to represent the
beautiful human body in motion, with all its muscles and sinews. Like Leonardo, he
was not content with learning the laws of anatomy secondhand, as it were, from
antique sculpture. He made his own research into human anatomy, dissected bodies,
and drew from models, till the human figure did not seem to hold any secrets for
him. But, unlike Leonardo, for whom man was only one of the many fascinating
riddles of nature, Michelangelo strove with an incredible singleness of purpose to
master this one problem, but to master it fully. His power of concentration and his
retentive memory must have been so outstanding that soon there was no posture
and no movement which he found difficult to draw. In fact, difficulties only seemed
to attract him. Attitudes and angles which many a great Quattrocento artist might
have hesitated to introduce into his pictures, for fear of failing to represent them
convincingly, only stimulated his artistic ambition, and soon it was rumoured that
this young artist not only equalled the renowned masters of classical antiquity but
actually surpassed them. Today, when young artists spend several years at art
schools studying anatomy, the nude, perspective, and all the tricks of draughts-
manship, when many an unambitious sports-reporter or poster-artist may have
acquired facility in drawing human figures from all angles, it may not be easy for
us to grasp the tremendous admiration which Michelangelo’s sheer skill and know-
ledge aroused in his day. By the time he was thirty, he was generally acknowledged
222 Harmony Attained
to be one of the outstanding masters of the age, equal in his way to the genius of
Leonardo. The city of Florence honoured him by commissioning him and Leonardo
each to paint an episode from Florentine history on a wall of the major council
chamber of the Town Hall. It was a dramatic moment in the history of art when
these two giants competed for the palm, and all Florence watched with excitement
the progress of their sketches and preparations. Unfortunately, the works were
never completed. Michelangelo received a call which kindled his enthusiasm
even more. Pope Julius II wanted his presence in Rome to erect a tomb for him
that should be worthy of the overlord of Christendom. We have heard of the
ambitious plans of this great-minded but ruthless ruler of the Church, and it is not
difficult to imagine how fascinated Michelangelo must have been to work for a man
who possessed the means and the will to carry out the boldest plans. With the
Pope’s permission, he immediately travelled to the famous marble quarries at
Carrara, there to select the blocks from which to carve a gigantic mausoleum. The
young artist was overwhelmed by the sight of all these marble rocks, which seemed
to be waiting for his chisel to turn them into statues such as the world had never
seen. He stayed more than six months at the quarries, buying, selecting and reject-
ing, his mind seething with images. He wanted to release the figures from the stones
in which they were slumbering. But when he returned and started to work, he soon
discovered that the Pope’s enthusiasm for the great enterprise had markedly cooled.
We know, today, that one of the main reasons for the Pope’s embarrassment was
that his plan for a tomb had come into conflict with another plan of his which was
even dearer to his heart: the plan for a new St. Peter’s. For the tomb had originally
been destined to stand in the old building, and if that was to be pulled down, where
was the mausoleum to be housed ? Michelangelo, in his boundless disappointment,
suspected different reasons. He smelt intrigue, and even feared that his rivals, above
all Bramante, the architect of the new St. Peter’s, wanted to poison him. In a fit
of fear and fury he left Rome for Florence, and wrote a rude letter to the Pope
saying that if he wanted him, he could go and look for him.
What was so remarkable in this incident was that the Pope did not lose his temper,
but started formal negotiations with the head of the city of Florence to persuade the
young sculptor to return. All concerned seemed to agree that the movements and
plans of this young artist were as important as any delicate matter of State. The
Florentines even feared that the Pope might turn against them if they continued
to give him shelter. The head of the city of Florence therefore persuaded Michel-
angelo to return to the service of Julius II, and gave him a letter of recommendation in
v hich he said that his art was unequalled throughout Italy, perhaps even throughout
the world, and that if only he met with kindness ‘he would achieve things which would
amaze the whole world’. For once a diplomatic note had uttered the truth. When
Michelangelo returned to Rome, the -Pope made him accept another commission.
Harmony Attained 223
There was a chapel in the Vatican which had been built by Pope Sixtus IV,
and was therefore called the Sistine Chapel. The walls of this chapel had been
decorated by the most famous painters of the former generation, by Botticelli,
Ghirlandajo and others. But the vault was still blank. The Pope suggested that
Michelangelo should paint it. Michelangelo did all he could to evade this com-
mission. He said that he was not really a painter, but a sculptor. He was convinced
that this thankless commission had been palmed off on to him through the intrigues
of his enemies. When the Pope remained firm, he started to work out a modest
scheme of twelve apostles in niches, and to engage assistants from Florence to help
him with the painting. But suddenly he shut himself up in the chapel, let no one
come near him, and started to work alone on a plan which has indeed continued to
‘amaze the whole world’ from the moment it was revealed.
It is very difficult for any ordinary mortal to imagine how it could be possible for
one human being to achieve what Michelangelo achieved in four years of lonely
work on the scaffoldings of the papal chapel. The mere physical exertion of painting
this huge fresco on the ceiling of the chapel, of preparing and sketching the scenes
in detail and transferring them to the wall, is fantastic enough. Michelangelo had to
lie on his back and paint looking upwards. In fact, he became so used to this
cramped position that even when he received a letter during that period he had to
hold it over his head and bend backwards to read it. But the physical performance
of one man covering this vast space unaided is as nothing compared to the intellec-
tual and artistic achievement. The wealth of ever-new inventions, the unfailing
mastery of execution in every detail, and, above all, the grandeur of the visions
which Michelangelo revealed to those who came after him, have given mankind
quite a new idea of the power of genius.
One often sees illustrations of details of this gigantic work, and one can never look
at them enough. But the impression given by the whole, when one steps into the
chapel, is still very different from the sum of all the photographs one may ever see.
The chapel resembles a very large and high assembly hall, with a shallow vault.
High up on the walls, we see a row of paintings of the stories of Moses and of Christ
in the traditional manner of Michelangelo’s forerunners. But, as we look upwards,
we seem to look into a different world. It is a world of more than human dimensions.
In the vaultings that rise between the five windows on either side of the chapel,
Michelangelo placed gigantic images of the Old Testament prophets who spoke to
the Jews of the coming Messiah, alternating with images of Sibyls, who, according
to an old tradition, predicted the coming of Christ to the pagans. He painted them
as mighty men and women, sitting deep in thought, reading, writing, arguing, or as
though they were listening to an inner voice. Between these rows of over life-size
figures, on the ceiling proper, he painted the story of the Creation and of Noah. But,
as though this immense task had not satisfied his urge for creating ever-new images,
O
224 Harmony Attained
he filled the framework between these pictures with an overwhelming host of figures,
some of them like statues, others like living youths of supernatural beauty, holding
festoons and medallions with yet more stories. And even this is only the centre-
piece. Beyond that, in the vaultings and directly below them, he painted an endless
succession of men and women in infinite variation — the ancestors of Christ as they
are enumerated in the Gospels.
When we see all this wealth of figures in a photographic reproduction, we may
suspect that the whole ceiling may look crowded and unbalanced. It is one of the
great surprises, when one comes into the Sistine Chapel, to find how simple and
harmonious the ceiling looks if we regard it merely as a piece of superb decoration —
how mellow and restrained are its colour schemes, and how clear the whole arrange-
ment. What is shown on Fig. 189 is only a small fraction of the whole work, one
sector, as it were, vaulting across the ceiling. On the one side there is the prophet
Daniel holding a huge volume, which a little boy supports on his knees, and turning
aside to take a note of what he has read. On the opposite side there is the ‘Persian’
Sibyl, an old woman in Oriental costume, holding the book close to her eyes — equally
engrossed in her researches into the sacred texts. The marble seats on which they
sit are adorned with statues of playing children, and above them, one on each side,
are two of the nudes gaily about to tie the medallion to the ceiling.These astonishing
figures display all Michelangelo’s mastery in drawing the human body in any
position and from any angle. They are young athletes with wonderful muscles,
twisting and turning in every conceivable direction, but always contriving to remain
graceful. There are no fewer than twenty of them on the ceiling, each one more
masterly than the last, and there is little doubt that many of the ideas which were
to have come to life out of the marbles of Carrara now crowded upon Michelangelo’s
mind when he painted the Sistine ceiling. One can feel how he enjoyed his stupen-
dous mastery and how his disappointment and his wrath at being prevented from
continuing to work in the material he preferred spurred him on even more to show
his enemies, real or suspected, that, if they forced him to paint — well, he would
show them!
We know how minutely Michelangelo studied each detail, and how carefully he
prepared each figure in the drawings. Fig. 190 shows a leaf from his sketch-book on
which he studied the forms of a model for one of the Sibyls. We see the interplay of
muscles as no one had observed and portrayed it since the Greek masters. But, if he
proved himself an unsurpassed virtuoso in these famous ‘nudes’, he proved to be
infinitely more than that in the illustrations of biblical themes which form the centre
of the composition. There we see the Lord, calling forth, with powerful gestures,
the plants, the heavenly bodies, animal life, and man. It is hardly an exaggeration to
say that the picture of God the Father — as it has lived in the minds of generation
after generation, not only of artists but of humble people, who perhaps have never
189. Michelangelo : A Section of the Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Vatican.
Painted between 1508 and 1512
226 Harmony Attained
190. MICHELANGELO: Study Jor one of the Sibyls on the
Sistine Ceiling. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
heard the name of Michelangelo — was shaped and moulded through the direct and
indirect influence of these great visions in which Michelangelo illustrated the act of
creation. Perhaps the most famous and most striking of them is the creation of
Adam on one of the large fields (Fig. 191). Artists before Michelangelo had already
painted Adam lying on the ground and being called to life by a mere touch of the
hand of God, but none of them had even come near to expressing the greatness of
the mystery of creation with such simplicity and force. There is nothing in the
picture to divert attention from the main subject. Adam is lying on the ground in all
the vigour and beauty that befits the first man; from the other side God the Father
is approaching, carried and supported by His angels, wrapped in a wide and majestic
mantle blown out by the wind like a sail, and suggesting the ease and speed with
which He floats through the void. As He stretches out His hand, not even touching
Adam’s finger, we almost see the first man waking, as from a profound sleep, and
gazing into the fatherly face of his Maker. It is one of the greatest miracles in art
how Michelangelo has contrived thus to make the touch of the Divine hand the
Harmony Attained 227
191. Michelangelo: The Creation of Adam. Detail of Fig. 189
centre and focus of the picture, and how he has made us see the idea of omnipotence
by the ease and power of this gesture of creation.
Michelangelo had hardly finished his great work on the Sistine ceiling, in 1512,
when he eagerly returned to his marble blocks to go on with the tomb of Julius II.
He had intended to adorn it with a number of statues of prisoners, such as he had
seen on Roman monuments — although it is likely he planned to give to these figures
a symbolical meaning. One of these is the ‘Dying Slave’ on Fig. 192.
If anyone had thought that after the tremendous exertion in the chapel Michel-
angelo’s imagination had run dry, he was soon proved wrong. For when he returned
to his beloved material, his powers seemed greater than ever. While in the ‘Adam’
Michelangelo had depicted the moment when life entered the beautiful body of a
vigorous youth, he now, in the ‘Dying Slave’, chose the moment when life was just
fading, and the body was giving way to the laws of dead matter. There is unspeak-
able beauty in this last moment of final relaxation and release from the struggle of
life — this gesture of lassitude and resignation. It is difficult to think of this work as
being a statue of cold and lifeless stone, as we stand before it in the Louvre in Paris.
It seems to move before our eyes, and yet to remain at rest. This is probably the
effect Michelangelo aimed at. It is one of the secrets of his art that has been admired
ever since, that, however much he lets the bodies of his figures twist and turn
in violent movement, their outline always remains firm, simple and restful. The
reason for this is that, from the very beginning, Michelangelo always tried to
conceive his figures as lying hidden in the block of marble on which he was
working; the task he set himself as a sculptor was merely to remove the stone which
covered them. Thus the simple shape of a block was always reflected in the
outline of the statues, and held it together in one lucid design, however much
movement there was in the body.
228 Harmony Attained
192. Michelangelo: The dying Slave . Marble
statue destined for the tomb of Pope Julius II.
About 1516. Paris, Louvre
If Michelangelo had been famous
when Julius II called him to Rome, his
fame after the completion of these
works was something no artist had ever
enjoyed before. But this tremendous
fame began to be something like a
curse to him : for he was never allowed
to complete the dream of his youth
— the tomb of Julius II. When Julius
died, another pope required the
services of the most famous artist of
his time, and each successive pope
seemed more eager than his pre-
decessor to have his name linked
with that of Michelangelo. Yet, while
princes and popes were outbidding
each other to secure the services of the
ageing master, he seemed to retire
more and more into himself and to
become more exacting in his standards .
The poems he wrote show that he was
troubled by doubts as to whether his
art had been sinful, while his letters
make it clear that the higher he rose in
the esteem of the world, the more
bitter and difficult he became. He was
not only admired, but feared for his
temper, and he spared neither high
nor low. There is no doubt he was
very conscious of his social position,
which was so different from anything
he remembered from the days of his
youth. Indeed, when he was seventy-
seven, he once rebuffed a compatriot
for having addressed a letter to ‘the
Sculptor Michelangelo’. ‘Tell him’,
he wrote, ‘not to address his letters to
the sculptor Michelangelo, for here
I am known only as Michelangelo
Buonarroti ... I have never been
Harmony Attained 229
painter or sculptor, in the sense of having kept a shop . . . although I have served
the popes; but this I did under compulsion.’
How sincere he was in this feeling of proud independence is best shown by the
fact that he refused payment for his last great work, which occupied him in his old
age: the completion of the work of his one-time enemy Bramante — the crowning
cupola of St. Peter’s. This work on the principal church of Christendom the aged
master regarded as a service to the greater glory of God, which should not be sullied
by worldly profit. As it rises over the city of Rome, supported, it seems, by a ring
of twin columns and soaring up with its clean majestic outline, it serves as a fitting
monument to the spirit of this singular artist whom his contemporaries called
‘divine’.
At the time when Michelangelo and Leonardo were competing with each other
in Florence in 1504, a young painter arrived there from the small city of Urbino, in
the province of Umbria. He was Raphael Santi (1483-1520), who had done promi-
sing work in the workshops of the leader of the ‘Umbrian’ school, Pietro Perugino
(1446-1523). Like Michelangelo’s master, Ghirlandajo, and Leonardo’s master,
Verrocchio, Raphael’s teacher, Perugino, belonged to the generation of highly
successful artists who needed a large staff of skilled apprentices to help them carry
out the many commissions they received. Perugino was one of those masters whose
sweet and devout manner in painting altar-pieces commanded general respect. The
problems with which earlier Quattrocento artists had wrestled with such zeal no
longer presented much difficulty to him. Some of his most successful works, at any
rate, show that he knew how to achieve a sense of depth without upsetting the
balance of the design, and that he had learned to handle Leonardo’s ‘sfumato’
so as to avoid giving his figures a harsh and rigid appearance. Fig. 193 is an altar-
painting dedicated to St. Bernard. The saint looks up from his book to see the Holy
Virgin standing in front of him. The arrangement could hardly be simpler — and
yet there is nothing stiff or forced in this almost symmetrical lay-out.The figures are
distributed to form a harmonious composition, and each of them moves with calm
and ease. It is quite true that Perugino achieved this beautiful harmony at the
expense of something else. He sacrificed the faithful portrayal of nature which the
great masters of the Quattrocento had striven for with such passionate devotion.
If we look at Perugino’s angels, we see that they all follow, more or less, the same
type. It is a type of beauty which Perugino invented and applied in his pictures
in ever-new variations. When we see too much of his work, we may tire of his
devices, but then his paintings were not meant to be seen, side by side, in picture
galleries. Taken singly, some of his best works give us a glimpse into a world more
serene and more harmonious than our own.
It was in this atmosphere that the young Raphael grew up, and he had soon mas-
tered and absorbed the maimer of his teacher. When he arrived in Florence he was
230
Harmony Attained
193. perugino: The Virgin appearing to St. Bernard. Altar-painting.
About 1490. Munich, Alte Pinakothek
confronted with a stirring challenge. Leonardo and Michelangelo, the one his senior
by thirty-one years, the other by eight years, were setting up new standards in
art of which nobody had ever dreamed. Other young artists might have become
discouraged by the reputations of these giants. Not so Raphael. He was determined
to learn. He must have known that he was at a disadvantage in some respects. He
had neither the immense range of knowledge of Leonardo, nor the power of
Michelangelo. But while these two geniuses were difficult to get on with, unpre-
dictable and elusive to ordinary mortals, Raphael was of a sweetness of temper
which would commend him to influential patrons. Moreover he could work, and
work he would until he had caught up with the older masters.
Raphael’s greatest paintings seem so effortless that one does not usually connect
them with the idea of hard and relentless work. To many he is simply the painter
of sweet Madonnas which have become so well known as hardly to be appreciated
as paintings any more. For Raphael’s vision of the Holy Virgin has been adopted by
subsequent generations in the same way as Michelangelo’s conception of God the
194 * Raphael : Pope Leo X ( Medici ) with two Cardinals. Probably painted in 1518.
Florence, Palazzo Pitti
195* RAPHAEL: Head of the nymph Galatea . Detail of Fig. 197
233
Harmony Attained
Father. We see cheap reproductions of these
works in humble rooms, and we are apt to
conclude that paintings with such a general
appeal must surely be a little ‘obvious’. In
fact, their apparent simplicity is the fruit of
deep thought, careful planning and immense
artistic wisdom. A painting like Raphael’s
‘Madonna del Granduca’ (Fig. 196) is truly
‘classical’ in the sense that it has served
countless generations as a standard of
perfection in the same way as the work of
Pheidias and Praxiteles has. It needs no
explanation. In this respect it is indeed
‘obvious’. But, if we compare it with the
countless representations of the same theme
which preceded it, we feel that they have all
been groping for the very simplicity that
Raphael has attained. We can see what
Raphael did owe to the calm beauty of
Perugino’s types, but what a difference
there is between the rather empty regularity
of the master and the fullness of life in the pupil! The way the Virgin’s face is
modelled and recedes into the shade, the way Raphael makes us feel the volume of
the body wrapt in the freely flowing mantle, the firm and tender way in which she
holds and supports the Christ-child — all this contributes to the effect of perfect
poise. We feel that to change the slightest detail would upset the whole harmony.
Yet there is nothing strained or sophisticated in the composition. It looks as if it
could not be otherwise, and as if it had so existed from the beginning of time.
After some years in Florence, Raphael went to Rome. He arrived there probably
in 1508 at the time when Michelangelo was just starting work on the Sistine ceiling.
Julius II soon found work for this young and amiable artist also. He asked him to
decorate the walls of various rooms in the Vatican which have come to be known
by the name of the Stanze (rooms). Raphael proved his mastery of perfect
design and balanced composition in a series of frescoes on the walls and ceilings
of these rooms. To appreciate the full beauty of these works, one must spend some
time in the rooms and feel the harmony and diversity of the whole scheme in which
movement answers to movement, and form to form. Removed from their setting
and reduced in size they tend to look frigid, for the individual figures, which stand
before us life-size when we face the frescoes, are too readily absorbed by the groups.
Conversely, when taken out of their context as illustrations of ‘detail’, these figures
196. Raphael: The Madonna del Granduca.
About 1505. Florence, Palazzo Pitti
234 Harmony Attained
lose one of their principal functions — that of forming part of the graceful melody of
the whole design.
This applies less to a smaller fresco (Fig. 197) which Raphael painted in the villa
of a rich banker, Agostino Chigi (now called the Farnesina). As subject he chose a
verse from a poem by the Florentine Angelo Poliziano which had also helped to
inspire Botticelli’s ‘Birth of Venus’. These verses describe how the clumsy giant
Polyphemus sings a love song to the fair sea-nymph Galatea and how she rides across
the waves in a chariot drawn by two dolphins, laughing at his uncouth song, while
the gay company of other sea-gods and nymphs is milling round her. Raphael’s
fresco shows Galatea with her gay companions. The picture of the giant was to
appear elsewhere in the hall. However long one looks at this lovely and cheerful
picture, one will always discover new beauties in its rich and intricate composition.
Every figure seems to correspond to some other figure, every movement to answer
a counter-movement. To start with the small boys with Cupid’s bows and arrows
who aim at the heart of the nymph: not only do those to right and left echo each
other’s movements, but the boy swimming beside the chariot corresponds to the
one flying at the top of the picture. It is the same with the group of sea-gods which
seems to be ‘wheeling’ round the nymph. There are two on the margins who blow
on their sea-shells, and the pairs in front and behind who are making love to each
other. But what is more admirable is that all these diverse movements are somehow
reflected and taken up in the figure of Galatea herself. Her chariot had been driving
from left to right with her veil blowing backwards, but, hearing the strange love
song, she turns round and smiles, and all the lines in the picture, from the love-gods’
arrows to the reins she holds, converge on her beautiful face in the very centre
of the picture (Fig. 195). By these artistic means Raphael has achieved constant
movement throughout the picture, without letting it become restless or unbalanced.
It is for this supreme mastery of arranging his figures, this consummate skill in
composition that artists have ever since admired Raphael. Just as Michelangelo was
found to have reached the highest peak in the mastery of the human body, Raphael
was seen to have accomplished what the older generation had striven so hard to
achieve: the perfect and harmonious composition of freely moving figures.
There was another quality in Raphael’s work that was admired by his contem-
poraries and by subsequent generations — the sheer beauty of his figures. When he
had finished the ‘Galatea’, Raphael was asked by a courtier where in all the world
he had found a model of such beauty. He replied that he did not copy any specific
model but rather followed ‘a certain idea’ he had formed in his mind. To some
extent, then, Raphael, like his teacher Perugino, had abandoned the faithful por-
trayal of nature which had been the ambition of so many Quattrocento artists. He
deliberately used an imagined type of regular beauty. If we look back to the time
of Praxiteles (p. 69, Fig. 62) we remember how what we call an ‘ideal’ beauty
Harmony Attained 235
197. Raphael: The Nymph Galatea . Wall-painting in the Villa Farnesina, Rome. About 1514
grew out of a slow approximation of schematic forms to nature. Now the process
was reversed. Artists tried to approximate nature to the idea of beauty they had
formed when looking at classical statues — they ‘idealized’ the model. It was a
tendency not without its dangers* for, if the artist deliberately ‘improves on’
236 Harmony Attained
nature, his work may easily look mannered or insipid. But if we look once more at
Raphael’s work, we see that he, at any rate, could idealize without any loss of
vitality and sincerity in the result. There is nothing schematic or calculated in
Galatea’s loveliness. She is an inmate of a brighter world of love and beauty — the
world of the classics as it appeared to its admirers in sixteenth-century Italy.
When Raphael died on his thirty-seventh birthday, almost as young as Mozart,
he had crammed into his brief life an astonishing diversity of artistic achievements
and interests. Like Michelangelo, he designed buildings and studied the ruins
of Rome. He was as great a portrait painter (Fig. 194) as a painter of large murals,
and, since he was a sociable man, the high dignitaries of the papal court and the
scholars made him their companion. There was even talk of his being made a
Cardinal. When he died in the spring of 1520 and left his busy workshop orphaned,
one of the most famous scholars of his age, Cardinal Bembo, wrote the epitaph for
his tomb in the Pantheon of Rome:
This is Raphael’s tomb, while he lived he made Mother Nature
Fear to be vanquished by him and, as he died, to die too.
198. Members of Raphael's workshop plastering , painting and decorating the Loggie .
Stucco relief in the Vatican Loggie made about 1518
CHAPTER 16 • LIGHT AND COLOUR
Venice and Northern Italy in the Early Sixteenth Century
aOESZ*!
[ l E must now turn to another great centre of Italian art, second in
\j \ J importance only to Florence itself— the proud and prosperous city
V V of Venice. Venice, whose trade linked it closely with the East, had been
slower than other Italian cities in accepting the style of the Renaissance, Brunel-
leschi’s application of classical form to buildings. But when it did, the style there
acquired a new gaiety, splendour and warmth which evoke perhaps more closely
than any other building in modern times, the grandeur of the great merchant cities
of the Hellenistic period, of Alexandria or Antiochia. One of the most characteristic
buildings of this style is the Library of San Marco (Fig. 199). Its architect was a
Florentine, Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), but he had completely adapted his
style and manner to the genius of the place, the brilliant light of Venice which is
reflected by the lagoons, and dazzles the eyes by its splendour. It may seem a little
pedantic to anatomize such a festive and simple building, but to look at it carefully
may help us to see how skilled these masters were in weaving a few simple elements
199. A building of the High Renaissance : the Liorary in Venice.
Designed by Jacopo Sansovino. 1536
238 Light and Colour
into ever-new patterns. The lower storey, then, with its vigorous Doric order of
columns, is in the most orthodox classical manner. Sansovino has closely followed
the rules of building which the Colosseum (p. 79, Fig. 72) exemplified. He adhered
to the same tradition when he arranged the upper storey in the Ionic order,
carrying a so-called ‘attic’ crowned with a balustrade and topped by a row of
statues. But, instead of letting the arched openings between the orders rest on
pillars, as had been the case on the Colosseum, Sansovino supported them by
another set of smaller Ionic columns, and thus achieved a rich effect of interlocked
orders. With his balustrades, garlands and sculptures he gave the building some-
thing of the appearance of tracery such as had been used on the Gothic facades of
Venice (p. 150, Fig. 138).
This building is characteristic of the taste for which Venetian art in the Cinque-
cento became famous. The atmosphere of the lagoons, which seems to blur the
sharp outlines of objects and to blend their colours in a radiant light, may have
taught the painters of this city to use colour in a more deliberate and observant way
than other painters in Italy had done so far. It is difficult to talk or write about
colours, and coloured illustrations are rarely sufficiently accurate to give a clear
idea of what a painting is really like. But so much seems to be clear : the painters
of the Middle Ages were no more concerned about the ‘real’ colours of things than
they were about their real shapes. In their miniatures, enamel work and panel
paintings, they loved to spread out the purest and most precious colours they could
get — with shining gold and flawless ultramarine blue as a favourite combination.
The great reformers of Florence were less interested in colour than in drawing.
That does not mean, of course, that their pictures were not exquisite in colour — the
contrary is true — but few of them regarded colour as one of the principal means
of welding the various figures and forms of a picture into one unified pattern. They
preferred to do this by means of perspective and composition before they even
dipped their brushes into paint. The Venetian painters, it seems, did not think of
colour as an additional adornment for the picture after it had been drawn on the
panel. When one enters the little church of San Zaccaria in Venice and stands before
the picture (Fig. 201) which the great Venetian painter Giovanni Bellini (143 1 ?-i 5 1 6)
had painted over the altar there in 1505 — in his old age — one immediately notices
that his approach to colour was very different. Not that the picture is particularly
bright or shining. It is rather the mellowness and richness of the colours that
impress one before one even begins to look at what the picture represents. I think
that even the photograph conveys something of the warm and gilded atmosphere
which fills the niche in which the Virgin sits enthroned, with the infant Jesus lifting
His little hand to bless the worshippers before the altar. An angel at the foot of the
altar softly plays the violin, while the saints stand quietly at either side of the
throne: St. Peter with his key and book, St. Catherine with the palm of martyrdom
Light and Colour 239
and the broken wheel, St. Apollonia and St. Jerome, the scholar who translated
the Bible into Latin, and whom Bellini therefore represented as reading in a book.
Many Madonnas with saints have been painted before and after, in Italy and else-
where, but few were ever conceived with such a dignity and repose. In the earlier
days, the picture of the Virgin used to be rigidly flanked by the traditional images of
the saints. Bellini knew how to bring life into a simple symmetrical arrangement
without upsetting its order. He also knew how to turn the traditional figures of the
Virgin and saints into real and living beings without divesting them of their old
character and dignity. He did not even sacrifice the variety and individuality of real
life — as Perugino had done to some extent (p. 230, Fig. 193). St. Catherine with her
dreamy smile, and St. Jerome, the old scholar engrossed in his book, are real enough
in their own ways, although they, too, no less than Perugino’s figures, seem to be-
long to another more serene and beautiful world, a world transfused with that warm
and supernatural light that fills the picture.
Giovanni Bellini belonged to the same generation as Verrocchio, Ghirlandajo and
Perugino — the generation whose pupils and followers were the famous Cinquecento
masters. He, too, was the head of an exceedingly busy workshop out of whose orbit
there emerged the famous painters of the Venetian Cinquecento , Giorgione and
Titian. If the classical painters of central Italy had achieved the new complete
harmony within their pictures by means of perfect design and balanced arrangement,
it was only natural that the painters of Venice should follow the lead of Giovanni
Bellini who had made such happy use of colour schemes to unify his pictures.
It was in this sphere that the painter Giorgione (1478 ?-i5io) achieved the
most revolutionary results. Very little is known of this artist; not more than
five paintings can be ascribed with absolute certainty to his hand. Yet these
sufficed to secure him a fame nearly as great as that of the great leaders of the New
Movement. Strangely enough, even these pictures contain something of a puzzle.
We are not quite sure what the most accomplished one, ‘The Tempest’ (Fig. 200),
represents ; it may be a scene from some classical writer or an imitator of the classics.
For Venetian artists of the period had awakened to the charm of the Greek poets and
what they stood for.They liked to illustrate the idyllic stories of pastoral love and to
portray the beauty of Venus and the nymphs. One day the episode here illustrated
may be identified — the story, perhaps, of a mother of some future hero, who was
cast out of the city into the wilderness with her child and was there discovered by a
friendly young shepherd. For this, it seems, is what Giorgione wanted to represent.
But it is not due to its content that the picture is one of the most wonderful things in
art. That this is so may be difficult to see in a small-scale illustration, but even
such an illustration conveys a shadow, at least, of his revolutionary achievement.
Though the figures are not particularly carefully drawn, and though the composition
is somewhat artless, the picture is clearly blended into a whole simply by the light
240 Light and Colour
and air that permeates it all. It is the weird light of a thunderstorm and for the first
time, it seems, the landscape before which the actors of the picture move is not
just a background. It is there, by its own right, as the real subject of the painting.
We look from the figures to the scenery which fills the major part of the small panel,
and then back again, and we feel somehow that unlike his predecessors and con-
temporaries, Giorgione has not drawn things and persons to arrange them afterwards
in space, but that he really thought of nature, the earth, the trees, the light, air and
clouds and the human beings with their cities and bridges as one. In a way, this
was almost as big a step forward into a new realm as the invention of perspective
had been. From now on, painting was more than a drawing plus colouring. It was
an art with its own secret laws and devices.
Giorgione died too young to gather all the fruits of this great discovery. This was
done by the most famous of all Venetian painters — Titian (1477?- 15 76). Titian
was bom in Cadore, in the southern Alps, and is said to have been ninety-nine when
he died of the plague. During his long life he rose to a fame which nearly matched
that of Michelangelo. His early biographers tell us with awe that even the great
Emperor Charles V had done him honour by picking up a brush he had dropped.
We may not find this very remarkable, but if we consider the strict rules of the
court of those times, we realize that the greatest embodiment of worldly power was
believed to have humbled himself symbolically before the majesty of genius. Seen in
this light, the little anecdote, whether true or not, represented to later ages a triumph
for art. All the more so since Titian was neither such a universal scholar as Leonardo,
nor such an outstanding personality as Michelangelo, nor such a versatile and attrac-
tive man as Raphael. He was principally and first of all a painter, but a painter whose
handling of paint equalled Michelangelo’s mastery of draughtsmanship. This
supreme skill enabled him to disregard all the time-honoured rules of composition,
and to rely on colour to restore the unity which he apparently broke up. We need
but look at Fig. 202 (which was begun only some fifteen years after Giovanni
Bellini’s painting ‘Madonna with Saints’), to realize the effect which his art must
have had on contemporaries. It was almost unheard of to move the Holy Vir gin out
of the centre of the picture, and to place the two administering saints — St. Francis,
who is recognizable by the Stigmata (the wounds of the Cross), and St. Peter, who
has deposited the key (emblem of his dignity) on the steps of the Virgin’s throne —
not symmetrically on each side, as Giovanni Bellini had done, but as active partici-
pants of a scene. In this altar-piece, Titian had to revive the tradition of donors’
portraits (p. 157, Fig. 143), but did it in an entirely novel way. The picture was
intended as a token of thanksgiving for a victory over the Turks by the Venetian
nobleman Jacopo Pesaro, and Titian portrayed him kneeling before the Vir gin while
an armoured standard-bearer drags a Turkish prisoner behind him. St. Peter and
the Virgin look down on him benignly while St. Francis, on the other side, draws the
200. Giorgione: The Tempest. About 1508. Venice, Accadcmia
201. Giovanni bellini: Madonna with Saints . Altar-painting in S. Zaccaria, Venice.
Completed in 1505
243
Light and Colour
202. titian: Madonna with Saints and members of the Pesaro family. Begun in 1519,
completed in 1528. Venice, Church of Sta Maria dei Frari
attention of the Christ-child to the other members of the Pesaro family who are
kneeling in the corners of the picture. The whole scene seems to take place in an
open courtyard, with two giant columns which rise into the clouds where two litde
angels are engaged in playfully raising the Cross. Titian’s contemporaries may well
have been amazed at the audacity with which he had dared to upset the old-estab-
lished rules of composition. They must have expected, at first, to find such a picture
Q
203. Titian: Madonna and Child, Detail of Fig. 202
245
Light and Colour
lopsided and unbalanced. Actually it is the
very opposite. The unexpected composition
only serves to make it gay and lively without
upsetting the harmony of it all. The main
reason is the way in which Titian contrived
to let light, air and colours unify the scene.
The idea of letting a mere flag counter-
balance the figure of the Holy Virgin would
probably have shocked an earlier genera-
tion, but this flag, in its rich warm colour,
is such a stupendous piece of painting that
the venture was a complete success.
Titian’s greatest fame with his contem-
poraries rested on portraits. We need only
look at a head like Fig. 204, usually called 204. TITIAN: Portrait of a man (so-called
a ‘Young Englishman’, to understand 'Young Englishman’). About 1540.
Florence, Palazzo Pitti
this fascination. We might try in vain to
analyse wherein it consists. Compared
with earlier portraits it all looks so simple and effortless. There is nothing of the
minute modelling of Leonardo’s ‘Mona Lisa’ in it — and yet this unknown young
man seems as mysteriously alive as she does. He seems to gaze at us with such an
intense and soulful look that it is almost impossible to believe that these dreamy
eyes are only a bit of coloured earth spread on a rough piece of canvas (Fig. 205).
It was not only in the great centres like Venice that artists advanced to the
discovery of new possibilities and new methods. The painter who was looked upon
by later generations as the most ‘progressive’ and most daring innovator of the
whole period led a lonely life in the small northern Italian town of Parma. His name
was Antonio Allegri, called Correggio (1489 ?— 1534). Leonardo and Raphael had
died and Titian had already risen to fame when Correggio painted his more im-
portant works, but we do not know how much he knew of the art of his time. He
probably had an opportunity in the neighbouring cities of northern Italy to study
the works of some of Leonardo’s pupils and to learn about his treatment of light and
shade. It was in this field that he worked out entirely new effects which greatly
influenced later schools of painters.
Fig. 206 shows one of his most famous paintings — ‘The Holy Night’. The tall
shepherd has just had the vision of the open heavens in which the angels sing their
‘Glory to God on High’; we see them whirling gaily about in the cloud and looking
down on the scene to which the shepherd has rushed with his long staff. In the
dark ruins of the stable he sees the miracle — the new-born Child that radiates light
all round, lighting up the beautiful face of the happy mother. The shepherd arrests
246
Light and Colour
205. TITIAN: Portrait of a Man. Detail of Fig. 204
his movement and fumbles for his cap, ready to kneel down and worship. There are
two servant girls — one is dazzled by the light from the manger, one looks happily at
the shepherd. St. Joseph in the murky dark outside busies himself with the ass.
Light and Colour
247
206. Correggio: The Holy Night. 207. Correggio: St. John the Baptist.
Altar-painting. About 1530 Study for a wall-painting. About 1526.
Dresden, Gallery Vienna, Albertina
At first sight the arrangement looks quite artless and casual. The crowded scene
on the left does not seem to be balanced by any corresponding group on the right.
It is only balanced through the emphasis which the light gives to the group of the
Virgin and the Child. Correggio even more than Titian exploited the discovery
that colour and light can be used to balance forms and to direct our eyes along
certain lines. It is we who rush to the scene with the shepherd and who are made to
see what he sees — the miracle of the Light that shone in darkness of which the
Gospel of St. John speaks.
There is one feature of Correggio’s works which was imitated throughout the
subsequent centuries ; it is the way in which he painted the ceilings and cupolas
of churches. He tried to give the worshippers in the nave below the illusion that the
ceiling had opened and that they were looking right into the glory of Heaven. His
mastery of light effects enabled him to fill the ceiling with sunlit clouds between
which the heavenly hosts seem to hover with their legs dangling downwards. This
may not sound very dignified and actually there were people at the time who
objected, but when you stand in the dark and gloomy medieval cathedral of Parma
and look up towards its dome the impression is nevertheless very great. Unfortu-
nately this type of effect cannot be reproduced in an illustration, the less so as these
frescoes have suffered a good deal in the course of time. Perhaps one of Correggio’s
248 Light and Colour
preparatory drawings for a spandrel under the cupola (Fig. 207) can give a better
idea of his intentions. It represents St. John the Baptist hugging the lamb (which
is his emblem), sitting on a cloud supported by angels and looking, enraptured,
into the stream of light that pours down from the open heavens above him. This
simple drawing gives an idea of Correggio’s skill in creating the illusion of over-
whelming radiance. Somehow the greatest masters of colour learned the secret of
conveying light even with a few touches of black.
208. An Orchestra of Venetian Painters : Titian (with double-bass), Tintoretto (with viola),
Jacopo Bassano (with flute), and Paolo Veronese (with violoncello). From the painting of
The Marriage at Cana by paolo Veronese. 1563. Paris, Louvre
CHAPTER 17 : THE NEW LEARNING SPREADS
Germany and the Netherlands in the Early Sixteenth Century
209. Northern Renaissance: The old Chancellery in Bruges (‘La Greffe’).
Designed by JAN WALLOT and Christian sixdeniers. 1535 7
T HE great achievements and inventions of the Italian masters of the
Renaissance made a deep impression on the peoples north of the Alps.
Everyone who was interested in the revival of learning had become
accustomed to looking towards Italy, where the wisdom and the treasures of
classical antiquity were being discovered. We know very well that m art we
250 The New Learning Spreads
cannot speak of progress in the sense in which we speak of progress in learning.
A Gothic work of art may be just as great as a work of the Renaissance. Nevertheless,
it is perhaps natural that to the people at that time, who came into contact with the
masterpieces from the south, their own art seemed suddenly to be old-fashioned
and out of date. There were three tangible achievements of the Italian masters to
which they could point. One was the discovery of scientific perspective, the second
the knowledge of anatomy — and with it the perfect rendering of the beautiful
human body — and thirdly the knowledge of the classical forms of building which
seemed to the period to stand for everything that was dignified and beautiful.
It is a fascinating spectacle to watch the reactions of various artists and traditions
to the impact of this new knowledge, and to see how they asserted themselves or, as
sometimes happened, how they succumbed — according to the strength of their
character and the breadth of their vision. Architects were perhaps in the most
difficult position. Both the Gothic system, to which they were accustomed, and the
new revival of ancient buildings are, at least in theory, utterly logical and consistent,
but as different from each other in aim and spirit as two styles could possibly be. It
took a long time, therefore, before the new fashion in building was adopted north
of the Alps. When this did come about, it was frequently on the insistence of princes
and noblemen who had visited Italy and wanted to be up to date. Even so, architects
often complied only very superficially with the requirements of the new style. They
demonstrated their acquaintance with the new ideas by putting a column here and
a frieze there — in other words, by adding some of the new forms to their wealth of
decorative motives. More often than not,
the body of the building remained entirely
untouched. There are churches, for in-
stance in France, England and Germany,
where the pillars supporting the vault
are superficially turned into columns by
having capitals affixed to them, or where
the Gothic windows are complete with
lacework, but the pointed arch has given
way to a rounded one (Fig. 210). There
are regular cloisters supported by fantastic
bottle -shaped columns, castles bristling
with turrets and buttresses, but adorned
with classical details, gabled town houses
with timber imitations of a regular frieze
(Fig. 209). An Italian artist, convinced of
the perfection of the classical rules, would
probably have turned away from these
210. Gothic transformed: the choir of St. Pierre
in Caen. Designed by pierre sohier.
Begun in 1518, completed about 1545
The New Learning Spreads 251
things in horror, but if we do not measure them by any pedantic academic standard
we may often admire the ingenuity and wit with which these incongruous styles
were blended.
Things were rather different in the case of painters and sculptors, because for
them it was not a matter of taking over certain definite forms such as columns, or
arches, piecemeal. Only minor painters could be content with borrowing a figure
or a gesture from an Italian engraving which had come their way. Any real artist
was bound to feel the urge thoroughly to understand the new principles of art
and to make up his mind about their usefulness. We can study this dramatic
process in the work of the greatest German artist, Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528),
who was throughout his life fully conscious of their vital importance for the
future of art.
Albrecht Diirer was the son of a distinguished master-goldsmith who had come
from Hungary and settled in the flourishing city of Nuremberg. Even as a boy,
young Diirer showed an astonishing gift for drawing — some of his works of that
time have been preserved — and he was apprenticed with the biggest workshop for
altars and woodcut illustrations. This belonged to the Nuremberg master, Michel
Wolgemut. Having completed his apprenticeship, he followed the custom of all
young medieval craftsmen and travelled about as a journeyman to broaden his views
and to look for a place in which to settle. Diirer’s intention had been to visit the
workshop of the greatest copper-engraver of his period, Martin Schongauer (p. 207),
but when he arrived at Colmar he found that the master had died some months
earlier. However, he stayed with Schongauer’s brothers, who had taken charge of
the workshop, and then turned to Basle in Switzerland, at that time a centre of
learning and of the book trade. Here he made woodcuts for books, and then
travelled on, across the Alps into northern Italy, keeping an open eye throughout
his journeys and making water-colours of the picturesque places in the Alpine
valleys, and studying the works of Mantegna (p. 186). When he returned to
Nuremberg to marry and open his own workshop, he possessed all the technical
accomplishments a northern artist could expect to acquire in the south. He soon
showed that he had more than mere technical knowledge of his difficult craft, that
he possessed that intense feeling and imagination which alone make the great artist.
One of his first great works was a series of large woodcuts illustrating the Revelation
of St. John. It was a great success. The terrifying visions of the horrors of doomsday,
and of the signs and portents preceding it, had never been visualized with similar
force and power. There is little doubt that Diirer’s imagination, and the interest
of the public, fed on the general restlessness and discontent with the institutions
of the Church which was rife in Germany towards the end of the Middle Ages,
and was finally to break out in Luther’s Reformation. To Diirer and his public,
the weird visions of the apocalyptic events had acquired something like topical
252 The New Learning Spreads
211. durer: St. Michael's Fight against the Dragon. From the woodcut
series illustrating the Revelation published in 1498
interest, for there were many who expected these prophecies to come true within
their lifetime. Fig. 21 1 shows an illustration of Revelation xii. 7:
And there was war in heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and
the dragon fought and his angels, and prevailed not ; neither was their place found any
more in heaven.
To represent this great moment, Durer discarded all the traditional poses that had
been used time and again to represent, with a show of elegance and ease, a hero’s
fight against a mortal enemy. Diirer’s St. Michael does not strike any pose. He is in
deadly earnest. He uses both hands in a mighty effort to thrust his huge spear into
the dragon’s throat, and this powerful gesture dominates the whole scene. Round
him there are the hosts of other warring angels fighting as swordsmen and archers
against the fiendish monsters, whose fantastic appearance defies description.
The New Learning Spreads