253
Beneath this celestial battlefield there lies a landscape untroubled and serene, with
Durer’s famous signature.
But though Diirer had proved himself a master of the fantastic and the visionary,
a true heir of those Gothic artists who had created the porches of the great cathedrals,
he did not rest content with this achievement. His studies and sketches show that
it was equally his aim to contemplate the beauty of nature, and to copy it as patiently
and as faithfully as any artist had ever done, since Jan van Eyck had shown the
artists of the north that their task was to mirror nature. Some of these studies of
Dtirer have become famous; for instance, his water-colour of a piece of lawn
(Fig. 212). It seems that Diirer strove for this perfect mastery in the imitation of
nature, not so much as an aim in itself but as a better way of presenting a convincing
vision of the sacred stories which he was to illustrate in his paintings, engravings,
and woodcuts. For the same patience which enabled him to draw these sketches also
made him the born engraver, who never tired of adding detail upon detail to build up
a true little world within the compass of his copper plate. In his ‘Nativity’ (Fig. 214)
which he made in 1504 (that is, about the time when Michelangelo amazed the
Florentines by his display of knowledge of the human body), Diirer took up the
theme which Schongauer (p. 207, Fig. 181) had represented on his lovely engraving.
The older artist had already used the opportunity to depict the rugged walls of the
dilapidated stables with special love. It would seem, at first glance, that for Diirer
this was the main subject. The old farmyard with its cracked mortar and loose tiles,
its broken wall from which trees are growing, its ramshackle boards in place of a
roof, on which birds are nesting, is thought
out and rendered with such quiet and Jh "**
contemplative patience that one feels how
much the artist enjoyed the idea of the
picturesque old building. Compared with
it, the figures seem, indeed, small and
almost insignificant: Mary, who has sought
shelter in the old shed and is kneeling
in front of her Child, and Joseph, who
busies himself hauling water from the well
and pouring it carefully into a narrow pit-
cher. One must look carefully to discover
one of the adoring shepherds in the back-
ground, and you almost need a magnifying
glass to detect the traditional angel in the
sky who announces the glad tidings to the
world. And yet no one would seriously
suggest that Dtirer was merely trying to
254 The New Learning Spreads
display his skill in rendering old and broken
walls. This old, disused farmyard, with its
humble visitors, conveys such an atmo-
sphere of idyllic peace that it calls on us to
ponder the miracle of the Holy Night in
the same mood of devout meditation as
went into the making of the engraving.
In engravings like this, Durer seemed
to have summed up and brought to per-
fection the development of Gothic art,
since it had turned towards the imitation
of nature. But, at the same time, his mind
was busy grappling with the new aims
given to art by the Italian artists.
There was one aim which Gothic art
had almost excluded and which now stood
in the foreground of interest: the repre-
sentation of the human body in that
ideal beauty with which classical art had endowed it.
Here Diirer was soon to find out that any mere imitation of real nature, however
diligently and devotedly it was done, would never be sufficient to produce the
elusive quality of beauty that distinguished southern works of art. Raphael, when
confronted with this question, referred to the ‘certain idea’ of beauty that he found
in his own mind, the idea that he had absorbed during years of studying classical
sculpture and beautiful models. To Diirer, this was no simple proposition. Not only
were his opportunities for study less wide, but he had no firm tradition or suie
instinct to guide him in such matters. That is why he went in search of a reliable
recipe, as it were, a teachable rule which would explain what makes for beauty in
the human form; and he believed he had found such a rule in the teachings of the
classical writers on art on the proportions of the human body. Their expressions
and measurements were rather obscure, but Diirer was not to be deterred by such
difficulties. He intended, as he said, to give the vague practice of his forefathers
(who had created vigorous works without clear knowledge of the rules of art) a
proper teachable foundation. It is thrilling to watch Diirer experimenting with
various rules of proportion, to see him deliberately distorting the human frame by
drawing overlong, or overbroad, bodies in order to find the right balance and the
right harmony. Among the first results of these studies which were to engage him
throughout his life was the engraving of Adam and Eve in which he embodied all
his new ideas of beauty and harmony, and which he proudly signed with his full
name in Latin, ‘Albertus Durer Noricus faciebat 1504’ (Fig. 213).
213. durer: Adam and Eve .
Engraving made in 1504
The New Learning Spreads
255
214. durer: The Nativity. Engraving made in 1504
It may not be easy for us to see immediately the achievement which lay in this
engraving. For the artist is speaking a language which is less familiar to him than
that which he used in our preceding example. The harmonious forms at which he
arrived by diligent measuring and balancing with compass and ruler, are not as
256 The New Learning Spreads
convincing and beautiful as their Italian and classical models. There is some slight
suggestion of artificiality, not only in their form and posture, but also in the sym-
metrical composition. But this slight feeling of awkwardness soon disappears when
one realizes that Durer has not abandoned his real self to serve new idols, as lesser
artists did. As we let him guide us into the Garden of Eden, where the mouse lies
quietly beside the cat, where the stag, the cow, the rabbit and the parrot do not fear
the tread of human feet, as we look deep into the grove where the tree of knowledge
grows, and watch the serpent giving Eve the fatal fruit while Adam stretches out
his hand to receive it, and as we notice how Durer has contrived to let the clear
outline of their white and delicately modelled bodies show up against the dark
shade of the forest with its rugged trees, we come to admire the first serious attempt
to transplant the ideals of the south into northern soil.
Durer himself, however, was not easily satisfied. A year after he had published
this engraving, he travelled to Venice to broaden his horizon and to learn more
about the secrets of southern art. The arrival of so eminent a competitor was not
altogether welcome to the minor Venetian artists, and Durer wrote to a friend:
*1 have many friends among the Italians who warn me not to eat and drink with
their painters. Many of them are my enemies; they copy my works in the churches
and wherever they can find them; and then they decry my work and say it was not
in the manner of the classics and therefore it was no good. But Giovanni Bellini
has praised me very highly to many noblemen. He wanted to have something I have
done, and he himself came to me and asked me to make something for him — he
would pay well. Everyone tells me how devout a man he is, which makes me like
him. He is very old, and still the best in painting.’
It is in one of these letters from Venice that Durer wrote the touching sentence
which shows how keenly he felt the contrast of his position as an artist in the rigid
order of the Nuremberg guilds compared with the freedom of his Italian colleagues :
‘How I shall shiver for the sun’, he wrote, ‘here I am a lord, at home a parasite. ’
But Dxirer’s later life does not quite bear out these apprehensions. True, at first he
had to bargain and argue with the rich burghers of Nuremberg and Frankfurt like
any artisan. He had to promise them to use only the best quality paint for his
panels and to apply it in many layers. But gradually his fame spread, and the
Emperor Maximilian, who himself believed in the importance of art as an instru-
ment of glorification, secured Durer’s services for a number of ambitious schemes.
When, at the age of fifty, Durer visited the Netherlands, he was, indeed, received
like a lord. He himself, deeply moved, described how the painters of Antwerp
honoured him in their guild-hall with a solemn banquet, ‘and when I was led to
the table, the people stood, on both sides, as if they were introducing a great lord,
and among them were many persons of excellence who all bowed their heads
in the most humble manner’. Even in the northern countries the great artists had
The New Learning Spreads 257
broken down the snobbery which led people to despise men who worked with
their hands.
It is a strange and puzzling fact that the only German painter who can be com-
pared with Diirer for greatness and artistic power has been forgotten to such an
extent that we are not even quite sure of his name. A writer of the seventeenth
century makes rather confused mention of one Matthias Griinewald of Aschaffen-
burg. He gives a glowing description of some painting of this ‘German Correggio’,
as he calls him, and thenceforward these paintings and others which must have been
painted by the same great artist are usually labelled ‘Griinewald*. No record or
document of the period, however, mentions any painter of the name of Griinewald,
and we must consider it likely that the author had mixed up his facts. Since some
of the paintings ascribed to the master bear the initials M.G.N., and since a painter
Mathis Gothardt Nithardt is known to have lived and worked near AschafFenburg
in Germany as an approximate contemporary of Albrecht Diirer, it is now believed
that this, and not Griinewald, was the true name of the great master. But this
theory does not help us much, since we do not know very much about the master
Mathis. In short, while Diirer stands before us like a living human being whose
habits, beliefs, tastes and mannerisms are intimately known to us, Griinewald is as
great a mystery to us as Shakespeare. It is unlikely that this is entirely due to mere
coincidence. The reason why we know so much about Diirer is precisely that he saw
himself as a reformer and innovator of the art of his country. He reflected on what he
was doing and why he did it, he kept records of his journeys and researches, and he
wrote books to teach his own generation. There is no indication that the painter of
the ‘Griinewald’ masterpieces saw himself in a similar light. On the contrary. The
few works we have of his are altar-panels of the traditional type in major and minor
provincial churches, including a large number of painted ‘wings ’ for a great altar at
the Alsatian village of Isenheim (the so-called Isenheim altar). His works afford no
indication that he strove like Diirer to become something different from a mere
craftsman or that he was hampered by the fixed traditions of religious art as it had
developed in the late Gothic period. Though he was certainly familiar with some of
the great discoveries of Italian art, he made use of them only as far as they suited his
ideas of what art should do. On this score, he does not seem to have felt any doubts.
Art for him did not consist in the search for the hidden laws of beauty — for him it
could have only one aim, the aim of all religious art in the Middle Ages — that of
providing a sermon in pictures, of proclaiming the sacred truths as taught by the
Church. The central panel of the Isenheim altar (Fig. 215) shows that he gladly
sacrificed all other considerations to this one overriding aim. Of beauty, as the Italian
artists saw it, there is none in this stark and cruel picture of the crucified Saviour.
Like a preacher at Passiontide, Griinewald left nothing undone to bring home to
us the horrors of this scene of suffering : Christ’s dying body is distorted by the
258 The New Learning Spreads
215. ‘grunewald’: Crucifixion. From the Isenhcim Altar. 1509-11. Colmar, Museum
torture of the Cross ; the thorns of the scourges stick in the festering wounds which
cover the whole figure. The dark red blood forms a glaring contrast to the sickly
green of the flesh. By His features and the impressive gesture of His hands, the Man of
Sorrows speaks to us of the meaning of His Calvary. His suffering is reflected in the
traditional group of Mary, in the garb of a widow, fainting m the arms of St. John the
Evangelist to whose care the Lord has commended her, and in the smaller figure of
St. Mary Magdalen with her vessel of ointments, wringing her hands in sorrow. On
the other side of the Cross, there stands the powerful figure of St. John the Baptist
with the ancient symbol of the lamb carrying the cross and pouring out its blood into
the chalice of the Holy Communion. With a stern and commanding gesture he points
towards the Saviour, and over him are written the words that he speaks (according
to the Gospel of St. John iii. 30) : ‘He must increase, but I must decrease. ’
There is little doubt that the artist wanted the beholder of the altar to meditate
on these words, which he emphasized so strongly by the pointing hand of St. John
the Baptist. Perhaps he even wanted us to see how Christ must grow and we
diminish. For in this picture in which reality seems to be depicted in all its
The New Learning Spreads 259
unmitigated horror, there is one un-
real and fantastic trait: the figures
greatly differ in size. We need only
compare the hands of St. Mary Mag-
dalen under the Cross with those of
Christ to become fully aware of the
astonishing difference in their dimen-
sions. It is clear that in these mat-
ters Griinewald rejected the rules
of modem art as it had developed
since the Renaissance, and that he
deliberately returned to the principles
of medieval and primitive painters
who varied the size of their figures
according to their importance in the
picture. Just as he had sacrificed the
pleasing kind of beauty for the sake
of the spiritual message of the altar,
he also disregarded the new demand
for correct proportions, since this
helped him to express the mystic truth
of the words of St. John.
Griinewald’s work may thus remind
us once more that an artist can be very
great indeed without being ‘progressive’, because the greatness of art does not
lie in new discoveries. That Griinewald was familiar with these discoveries he
showed plainly enough whenever they helped him to express what he wanted to
convey. And just as he used his brush to depict the dead and tormented body of
Christ, he used it on another panel to convey its transfiguration at the resurrection
into an unearthly apparition of heavenly light (Fig. 216). It is difficult to describe
this picture because, once more, so much depends on its colours. It seems as if
Christ had just soared out of the grave, leaving a trail of radiant light — the shroud
in which the body had been swathed reflecting the coloured rays of the halo. There
is a poignant contrast between the risen Christ who is hovering over the scene, and
the helpless gestures of the soldiers on the ground who are dazzled and overwhelmed
by this sudden apparition of light. We feel the violence of the shock in the way in
which they writhe in their armour. As we cannot assess the distance between
foreground and background, the two soldiers behind the grave look like puppets
who have tumbled over, and their distorted shapes only serve to throw into relief
the serene and majestic calm of the transfigured body of Christ.
R
216. ‘grunewald’: Resurrection. From the
Isenheim Altar, 1 509-11. Colmar, Museum
26 o
The New Learning Spreads
217. CRANACH: The Rest on the Flight to Egypt. 1504.
Berlin, Deutsches Museum
A third famous German of Diirer’s generation, Lucas Cranach (1472-1 553), began
as a most promising painter. In his youth he spent several years in southern Germany
and Austria. At the time when Giorgione, who came from the southern foothills of the
Alps, discovered the beauty of romantic scenery, this young painter was fascinated
by the charms of the northern foothills with their far vistas and old forests. In a
painting dated 1504 — the year when Diirer published his prints (Fig. 213 and Fig.
214) — Cranach represented the Holy Family on the Flight to Egypt (Fig. 217).
They are resting near a spring in a wooded mountain region. It is a char ming
place in the wilderness with shaggy trees and a wide view down a lovely green
valley. Crowds of little angels have gathered round the Virgin, one is offering berries
to the Christ-child, another is fetching water in a shell while others have settled
down to refresh the spirit of the tired refugees with a concert of pipes and flutes.
The New Learning Spreads 261
This poetic invention has preserved
something of the spirit of Lochner’s
lyrical art (p. 206, Fig. 180).
In his later years Cranach became
a rather slick and fashionable court
painter in Saxony who owed his fame
mainly to his friendship with Martin
Luther. But it seems that his brief
stay in the Danube region had been
sufficient to open the eyes of the people
who lived in the Alpine districts to the
beauty of their surroundings. The
painter Albrecht Altdorfer, of Ratisbon
(1480 P-1538), went out into the woods
and mountains to study the shape of
weather-beaten pines and rocks. Many
of his water-colours and etchings, and
at least one of his oil-paintings (Fig.
218), tell no story and contain no
human being. This is quite a momen-
tous change. Even the Greeks with
all their love of nature had painted landscapes only as settings for their pastoral
scenes (p. 77, Fig. 70). In the Middle Ages a painting which did not clearly
illustrate a theme, sacred or profane, was almost inconceivable. Only when the
painter’s skill as such began to interest people was it possible for him to sell a
painting which served no other purpose
but that of recording his enjoyment of a
beautiful piece of scenery.
The Netherlands, at this great time of
the first decades of the sixteenth century,
produced not as many outstanding masters
as they had done during the fifteenth
century, when masters like Jan van Eyck
(p. 170), Rogier van der Weyden (p. 199)
and Hugo van der Goes (p. 201) were
famous throughout Europe. Those artists,
at least, who strove to absorb the New
Learning as Diirer had done in Germany
were often tom between their loyalties to
old methods and their love for the new.
218. ALTDORFER: Landscape. About 1532.
Munich. Alte Pinakothek
262
Learning Spreads
Fig. 219 shows a characteristic example by
the painter Jan Gossaert, called Mabuse
(1478 ?— 1535 ?). According to the legend,
St. Luke the Evangelist was a painter by
profession, and thus he is represented here
making a portrait of the Virgin and her
Child. The way in which Mabuse painted
these figures is quite in accordance with
the traditions of Jan van Eyck and his
followers, but the setting is quite different.
It seems that he wanted to show off his
knowledge of the Italian achievements, his
skill in scientific perspective, his familiarity
with classical architecture, and his mastery
of light and shade. The result is a picture
which certainly has great charm but which
lacks the simple harmony of both its
northern and Italian models. One wonders
why St. Luke found no more suitable
place in which to draw the Madonna than
this ostentatious but presumably draughty
palace courtyard.
Thus it came that the greatest Dutch
artist of the period is not to be found
among the adherents of the New Style
but among those who, like Griinewald in
Germany, refused to be drawn into the
modem movement from the south. In
the Dutch town of Hertogenbosch there
lived such a painter who was called
Hieronymus Bosch. Very little is known
about his personality. We do not know
how old he was when he died in 1516,
but he must have been over fifty at least
since he was an established master in
1488. Like Griinewald, Bosch showed
that the traditions and achievements of
painting which had been developed to represent reality most convincingly could
be turned round, as it were, to give us an equally plausible picture of things
no human eye had seen. He became famous for his terrifying representations
The New
220. bosch: Hell. Right wing of a triptych.
About 1510. Madrid, Prado
The New Learning Spreads 263
221. Detail of Fig. 220
of hell and its inmates. "Perhaps it is no accident that the gloomy King Philip
II of Spain had a special predilection for these cruel fantasies. Fig. 220 shows
a wing from one of the triptychs he bought and which is therefore still in Spain.
264 The New Learning Spreads
There we see horror piled upon horror, fires and torments and all manner of
fearful demons, half animal, half human or half machine, who plague and punish
the poor sinful souls for all eternity. For the first and perhaps for the only time an
artist had succeeded in giving concrete and tangible shape to the fears which had
haunted the minds of man in the Middle Ages. It was an achievement which was
perhaps only possible at this very moment of time when the old ideas were still
vigorous while the modern spirit had provided the artist with methods to represent
what he saw. Perhaps Hieronymus Bosch could have written on one of his paint-
ings of hell what Jan van Eyck wrote on his peaceful scene of the Arnolfini’s
betrothal: ‘I was there’.
222. The Painter studying the laws of foreshortening by means of threads and
a frame. Woodcut by durer from the 1525 edition of his text-book
on perspective and proportion
chapter 18 • A CRISIS OF ART
Europe , Later Sixteenth Century
223. An Italian sixteenth-century villa: the Villa Rotonda near Vicenza.
Designed by PALLADIO. 1550
R OUND about 1520 all lovers of art in the Italian cities seemed to agree
that painting had reached the peak of perfection. Men such as Michelangelo
Land Raphael, Titian and Leonardo, had actually done everything that
former generations had tried to do. No problem of draughtsmanship seemed too
difficult for them, no subject-matter too complicated. They had shown how to
combine beauty and harmony with correctness, and had even surpassed — so it was
said — the most renowned Greek and Roman statues in their mastery of detail. For
a boy who wanted one day to become a great painter himself, this general opinion
was perhaps not altogether pleasant to listen to. However much he may have
admired the wonderful works of the great living masters, he must have wondered
whether it was true that nothing remained to be done because everything art could
possibly do had been achieved. Some appeared to accept this idea as inevitable, and
studied hard to learn what Michelangelo had learned, and to imitate his manner as
best they could. Michelangelo had loved to draw nudes in complicated attitudes
— well, if that was the right thing to do, they would copy his nudes, and put them
into their pictures whether they fitted or not. The result was sometimes slightly
ludicrous — the sacred scenes from the Bible were crowded out by what appeared
to be a training team of young athletes. Later critics, who saw that these young
painters had gone wrong simply because they imitated the manner rather than
266 A Crisis of Art
the spirit of Michelangelo’s works, have called the period during which that was
the fashion the period of Mannerism. But not all young artists of that period were
so foolish as to believe that all that was asked of art was a collection of nudes in
difficult postures. Many, indeed, doubted whether art could ever come to a
standstill, whether it was not possible, after all, to surpass the famous masters of the
former generation, if not in their handling of human forms, then, perhaps, in some
other respect. Some wanted to outdo them in the matter of invention. They
wanted to paint pictures full of significance and wisdom — such wisdom, indeed,
that it should remain obscure, save to the most learned scholars. Their works
almost resemble picture puzzles which cannot be solved save by those who know
what the scholars of the time believed to be the true meaning of Egyptian hiero-
glyphs, and of many half-forgotten ancient writers. Others, again, wanted to
attract attention by making their works less natural, less obvious, less simple and
harmonious than the works of the great masters. These works, they seem to have
argued, are indeed perfect — but perfection is not for ever interesting. Once you
are familiar with it, it ceases to excite you. We will aim at the startling, the unex-
pected, the unheard-of. Of course, there was something slightly unsound in this
obsession of the young artists with the task of outdoing the classical masters — it
led even the best among them to strange, sophisticated experiments. But, in a way,
these frantic efforts to go one better were the greatest tribute they could pay to the
older artists. Had not Leonardo himself said: ‘A wretched pupil who does not
surpass his master’? To some extent, the great ‘classical’ artists had themselves
begun and encouraged new and unfamiliar experiments; their very fame, and the
credit they enjoyed in their later years, had enabled them to try out new, unorthodox
effects in arrangement or colouring, and to explore new possibilities of art. Michel-
angelo in particular had occasionally shown a bold disregard for all conventions —
nowhere more than in architecture, where he sometimes abandoned the sacrosanct
rules of classical tradition to follow his own moods and whims. To some extent, it
was he himself who accustomed the public to admire an artist’s ‘caprices’ and
‘inventions’, and who set the example of a genius not satisfied with the matchless
perfection of his own early masterpieces, but constantly and restlessly searching for
new methods and modes of expression.
It was only natural that young artists should regard this as a licence to startle the
public with their own ‘original’ inventions. Their efforts resulted in some amusing
pieces of design. The window in form of a face (Fig. 224), designed by an architect
and painter, F. Zuccari (i530?-i609), gives a good idea of this type of caprice.
Other architects, again, were more intent on displaying their great learning and
their knowledge of classical authors in which they did, in fact, surpass the masters
of Bramante’s generation. The greatest and most learned of these was the architect
Andrea Palladio (1518-80). Fig. 223 shows his famous Villa Rotonda or round
267
A Crisis of Art
villa near Vicenza. In a way, it, too, is a
‘caprice for it has four identical sides, each
with a porch in form of a temple facade,
grouped round a central hall which recalls
the Roman Pantheon (p. 80, Fig. 73).
However beautiful the combination may
be, it is hardly a building which one would
like to live in. The search for novelty and
effect has interfered with the ordinary
purpose of building.
A typical artist of this period was
the Florentine sculptor and goldsmith
Benvenuto Cellini (1500-71). Cellini has
described his own life in a famous book
which gives an immensely colourful and
vivid picture of his age. He was boastful, 22 + Window from the Palasso Zuccari in Rome.
r & Designed by I'. Zuccari. 1592
ruthless and vain, but it is hard to be cross
with him because he tells his story of his adventures and exploits with such gusto
that you think you are reading a novel by Dumas. In his vanity and conceit and in his
restlessness which drove him from town to town and from court to court, picking
quarrels and earning laurels, Cellini is a real product of his time. For him to be an
225. CELLINI: Salt Cellar oj chased gold and enamel on a base of ebony .
Made for Francis I of France in 1543. Vienna, Kunsthistorischcs Museum
268
A Crisis of Art
artist was no longer to be a respectable and sedate owner of a workshop : it was to be
a ‘virtuoso’ for whose favour princes and cardinals should compete. One of the few
works by his hand which has come down to us is a golden salt-cellar, made for the
King of France in 1543 (Fig. 225). Cellini tells us the story in great detail. We hear
how he snubbed two famous scholars who ventured to suggest a subject to him, how
he made a model in wax of his own invention representing the Earth and the Sea. To
show how the Earth and the Sea interpenetrate he made the legs of the two figures
interlock. ‘The Sea, fashioned as a man, held a finely wrought ship which could hold
enough salt, beneath I had put four sea-horses and I had given the figure a trident.
The Earth I fashioned as a fair woman, as graceful as I could do it. Beside her I
placed a richly-decorated temple to hold the pepper ? But all this subtle invention
makes less interesting reading than the story of how Cellini carried the gold from the
King’s treasurer and was attacked by four bandits all of whom he put to flight single-
handed. To some of us the smooth elegance of Cellini’s figures may look a little over-
elaborate and affected. Perhaps it is a consolation to know that their master had
enough of that healthy robustness which his work seems to lack.
Cellini’s outlook is typical of restless and hectic attempts of the period to create
something more interesting and unusual
than former generations had done. We find
the same spirit in the paintings of one
of Correggio’s followers, Parmigianino
(1503-40). I can well imagine that some
may find his Madonna (Fig. 226) rather
disgusting because of the affectation and
sophistication with which a sacred subject
is treated. There is nothing in it of the ease
and simplicity with which Raphael had
treated that ancient theme. The picture is
called the ‘Madonna with the long neck’
because the painter, in his eagerness to
make the Holy Virgin look graceful and
elegant, has given her a neck like that of a
swan. He has stretched and lengthened
the proportions of the human body in a
strangely capricious way. The hand of
the Virgin with her long delicate fingers,
the long leg of the angel in the fore-
226. Parmigianino: The Madonna with ground, the lean, haggard prophet with a
the long neck. Begun in 1532* left incomplete ro ll of parchment — we See them all as
at the artist’s death in 1540.
Florence, Palazzo Pitti through a distorting mirror. And yet there
269
A Crisis of Art
can be no doubt that the artist achieved
this effect through neither ignorance nor
indifference. He has taken great cafe to
show us that he liked these unnaturally
elongated forms, for, to make doubly sure
of his effect, he placed an oddly shaped
highcolumnofequallyunusualproportions
in the background of the painting. As for
the arrangement of the picture, he also
showed us that he did not believe in con-
ventional harmonies. Instead of distribut-
ing his figures in equal pairs on both sides
of the Madonna, he crammed a jostling
crowd of angels into a narrow corner, and
left the other side wide open to show the
tall figure of the prophet, so reduced in size
through the distance, that he hardly reaches
the Madonna’s knee. There can be no
doubt, then, that if this be madness there
is a method in it. The painter wanted to be
unorthodox. He wanted to show that the
classical solution of perfect harmony is not
the only solution conceivable : that natural
simplicity is one way of achieving beauty,
but that there are less direct ways of getting
interesting effects for sophisticated lovers
of art. Whether we like or dislike the road
he took, we must admit that he was
consistent. Indeed, Parmigianino and all
the artists of his time who deliberately sought to create something new and un-
expected, even at the expense of the ‘natural’ beauty established by the great
masters, were perhaps the first ‘modern 5 artists. We shall see, indeed, that what is
now called ‘modern 5 art may have had its roots in a similar urge to avoid the
obvious and achieve effects which differ from conventional natural beauty.
Other artists of this strange period, in the shadow of the giants of art, were less
despairing of surpassing them by ordinary standards of skill and virtuosity. We may
not agree with all they did, but here, too, we are forced to admit that some of their
efforts are startling enough. A typical example is the statue of Mercury, the messen-
ger of the gods, by a French sculptor, Jean de Boulogne (1529-1608), whom the
Italians called Giovanni da Bologna (Fig. 227). He had set himself the task of
227. GIOVANNI DA bologna: Mercury.
Bronze statue made in 1567.
Florence, Bargello
270
A Crisis of Art
228. TINTORETTO: The Finding of St. Mark's Remains. Painted about 1562.
Milan, Brera
achieving the impossible — a statue which overcomes the weight of dead matter
and which creates the sensation of a rapid flight through the air. And to a certain
extent he was successful. Only with a tip of his toe does his famous Hermes touch
the ground — rather, not the ground, but a gush of air which comes out of the mouth
of a mask representing the South Wind. The whole statue is so carefully balanced
that it really seems to hover in the air — almost to speed through it, with swiftness
and grace. Perhaps a classical sculptor, or even Michelangelo, might have found
such an effect unbecoming to a statue which should remind one of the heavy block
of matter out of which it was shaped — but Giovanni da Bologna, not less than
Parmigianino, preferred to defy these well-established rules and to show what
surprising effects could be achieved.
Perhaps the greatest of all these masters of the latter part of the sixteenth century
lived in Venice. He was called Jacopo Robusti, nicknamed Tintoretto (1518-94).
He too had tired of the simple beauty in forms and colours which Titian had shown
to the Venetians — but his discontent must have been more than a mere desire to
accomplish the unusual. He seems to have felt that, however incomparable Titian
A Crisis of Art 271
was as a painter of beauty, his pictures tended to be more pleasing than moving:
that they were not sufficiently exciting to make the great stories of the Bible and the
sacred legends live for us. Whether he was right in this or not, he must, at any rate,
have been resolved to tell these stories in a different way, to make the spectator feel
the thrill and tense drama of the events he painted. Fig. 228 shows that he did indeed
succeed in making his pictures unusual and captivating. At first glance this painting
looks confused and confusing. Instead of a clear arrangement of the main figures
in the plane of the picture, such as Raphael had achieved, we look into the depths
of a strange vault. There is a tall man with a halo at the left comer, raising his arm
as if to stop something that is happening — and if we follow his gesture we can see
that he is concerned with what is going on high up under the roof of the vault on
the other side of the picture. There are two men about to lower a dead body from
a tomb — they have lifted its lid — and a third man in a turban is helping them, while
a nobleman in the background with a torch is trying to read the inscription on another
tomb. These men are evidently plundering a catacomb. One of the bodies is
stretched out on a carpet in strange foreshortening, while a dignified old man in a
gorgeous costume kneels beside it and looks at it. In the right comer there is a
group of men and women, apparently frightened and looking with astonishment at
the saint — for a saint the figure with the halo must be. If we look more closely we
see that he carries a book — he is St. Mark the Evangelist, the patron saint of
Venice — which reminds us that the dignified old man wears the robe of a Venetian
Doge. What is happening ? Why is a Doge assisting in body-snatching ? The picture
represents the story of how the relics of St. Mark were brought from Alexandria
(the town of the ‘infidel’ Mohammedans) to Venice, where the famous shrine of
the church of St. Mark was built to house them. The story goes that St. Mark had
been bishop at Alexandria and had been buried in one of the catacombs there.
When the Venetian party had broken into the catacomb on their strange but pious
errand of finding the body of the saint, they did not know which of the many tombs
contained the treasured relic. But when they found the right one, St. Mark suddenly
appeared and revealed the remains of his earthly existence. That is the moment
which Tintoretto selected. The saint commands the men not to continue searching
the tombs, while the Doge kneels in veneration looking at the miraculously pre-
served body of the saint lying on the carpet, bathed in light, and the group of
people on the right shrink back in awe and terror at the sudden apparition. No
doubt the whole picture must have struck contemporaries as eccentric and unortho-
dox. They may have been rather shocked by the clashing contrasts of light and
shade, of nearness and distance, by the lack of harmony in gestures and movements.
Even in his colour schemes Tintoretto abandoned the mellow beauty of Giorgione’s
and Titian’s earlier works. His painting of St. George’s fight with the dragon,
in London (Fig. 241), shows how the weird light and the broken tones add to the
272 A Crisis of Art
feeling of tension and excitement. We feel the drama has just reached its climax.
The princess seems to be rushing right out of the picture towards us while the hero
is removed, against all rules, far into the background of the scene.
Vasari, a great Florentine critic and biographer of the period, wrote of Tintoretto
that ‘had he not abandoned the beaten track but rather followed the beautiful
style of his predecessors, he would have become one of the greatest painters seen
in Venice’. As it was, Vasari thought his work was marred by careless execution
and eccentric taste. He was puzzled by the lack of ‘finish’ Tintoretto gave his work.
‘His sketches ’, he says, ‘are so crude that his pencil strokes show more force than
judgement and seem to have been made by chance. ’ It is a reproach which from
that time onward has often been made against modern artists. Perhaps this is not
altogether surprising, for these great innovators in art have often concentrated
on the essential things and refused to worry about technical perfection in the
usual sense. In periods like that of Tintoretto’s, technical excellence had reached
such a high standard that anyone with some mechanical aptitude could master
some of its tricks. A man like Tintoretto wanted to show things in a new light,
he wanted to explore new ways of representing the legends and myths of the
past. He considered his painting complete when he had conveyed his vision of
the legendary scene. A smooth and careful finish did not interest him, for it did
not serve his purpose. On the contrary — it might have distracted our attention
from the dramatic happenings of the picture. So he left it at that, and left people
wondering.
No one in the sixteenth century took these methods further than a painter
from the Greek island of Crete, with the strange name of Domenico Theotocopoulos
(1541 ?-i6i4) who was called ‘the Greek’ (El Greco) for short. He had come to
Venice from a remote part of the world which had not developed any new kind of art
since the Middle Ages. In his homeland, he must have been used to seeing the
images of saints in the ancient Byzantine manner — solemn, rigid and remote from
any semblance of natural appearance. Not being trained to look at pictures for their
correct design, he found nothing shocking in Tintoretto’s art, but much that was
fascinating. For he, too, it seems, was a passionate and devout man, and he felt an
urge to tell the sacred stories in a new and stirring manner. After his stay in Venice
he settled in a distant part of Europe — in Toledo, Spain, where again he was not
likely to be disturbed and harried by critics asking for correct and natural design —
for in Spain, too, the medieval ideas on art still lingered on. This may explain why
El Greco’s art surpasses even Tintoretto’s in its bold disregard of natural forms and
colours, and in its stirring and dramatic visions. Fig. 229 is one of his most startling
and exciting pictures. It represents a passage from the revelation of St. John, and
it is St. John himself we see on one side of the picture in visionary rapture,
looking towards Heaven and raising his arms in a prophetic gesture.
A Crisis of Art
273
229. EL greco: The Opening of the Fifth Seal. About 1610.
Formerly Zumaya, Zuloaga Collection
The passage is the one in the Revelation in which the Lamb summons St. John
to ‘Come and see’ the opening of the seven seals. ‘And when he had opened the
fifth seal, I saw under the Altar the souls of them that were slain for the word of
God, and for the testimony which they held: And they cried with a loud voice,
saying “How long, O Lord, holy and true, dost thou not judge and avenge our blood
on them that dwell on the earth ?’ ’ And white robes were given unto every one of
them ’ (Rev. vi. 9-1 1). The nude figures, with their excited gestures, are therefore the
martyrs who rise from their graves and call to Heaven for revenge, and stretch out
their hands to receive the heavenly gift of while robes. Surely no exact and accurate
drawing could ever have expressed that terrible vision of doomsday, when the very
saints call for the destruction of this world, with such an uncanny and convincing
force. It is not difficult to see that El Greco had learned much from Tintoretto’s un-
orthodox method of lopsided composition, and that he had also adopted the manner-
ism of over-long figures like that of Parmigianino’s sophisticated Madonna. But we
also realize that El Greco had employed this artistic method with a new purpose. He
lived in Spain, where religion had a mystic fervour found hardly anywhere else. In
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A Crisis of Art
this atmosphere, the sophisticated art of
‘Mannerism 5 lost much of its character
of an art for connoisseurs. Though his
work strikes us as incredibly ‘modern 5
(Fig. 242) his contemporaries in Spain
do not seem to have raised any objec-
tions such as Vasari did to Tintoretto’s
works. His studio was always fully
employed. He seems to have engaged
a number of assistants to cope with the
many orders he received, and that may
explain why not all the works that bear
his name are equally good. It was only
a generation later that people began to
criticize his unnatural forms and
colours, and to regard his pictures as
something like a bad joke; and only a
generation ago, when modern artists
had taught us not to apply the same
standards of ‘correctness 5 to all works
of art, was El Greco’s art rediscovered
and understood.
In the northern countries, in Germany, Holland and England, artists were con-
fronted with a much more real crisis than their colleagues in Italy and Spain. For these
southerners had only to deal with the problem of how to paint in a new and startling
manner. In the north the question soon became whether painting could and should
continue at all. This great crisis was brought about by the Reformation. Many Pro-
testants objected to pictures or statues of saints in churches and regarded them as
a sign of popish idolatry. Thus the painters in Protestant regions lost their best source
of income, the painting of altar-panels. The stricter among the Calvinists even ob-
jected to other kinds of luxury such as gay decorations of houses and even where these
were permitted in theory the climate and the style of buildings was usually unsuited
to large fresco decorations such as Italian nobles commissioned for their palaces. All
that remained as a source of regular income for artists was book illustration and por-
trait painting, and it was doubtful whether these would suffice to make a living.
We can witness the effect of this crisis in the career of the greatest German painter
of this generation, in the life of Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543). Holbein
was twenty-six years younger than Differ and only three years older than Cellini.
He was bom in Augsburg, a rich merchant city with close trade relations with
Italy; he soon moved to Basle, a renowned centre of the New Learning.
230. Holbein: Anne Cresacre, Sir Thomas
More’s daughter-in-law . Drawing made in
1528. Windsor Castle
231. holbein: Georg Gisze , a German merchant in London. Painted in 1532. Berlin, Kaiser-Friedrich Museum
232. holbein: The Virgin with the family of Burgomaster Meyer . Painted about 1528.
Darmstadt, Castle
A Crisis of Art
277
The knowledge which Diirer strove for so passionately throughout his life, came
thus more naturally to Holbein. Coming from a painter’s family (his father was a
respected master) and being exceedingly alert, he soon absorbed the achievements
of both the northern and the Italian artists. He was hardly over thirty when he
painted the wonderful altar-painting of the Virgin with the family of the burgo-
master of Basle as donors (Fig. 232). The form was traditional in all countries, and
we have seen it applied in the Wilton diptych (p. 157, Fig. 143) and Titian’s
Pesaro Madonna (p. 243, Fig. 202). But Holbein’s painting is still one of the most
perfect examples of its kind. The way in which the donors are arranged in seemingly
effortless groups on both sides of the Virgin whose calm and majestic figure is
framed by a niche of classical forms, reminds us of the most harmonious composi-
tions of the Italian Renaissance, of Giovanni Bellini (p. 242, Fig. 201) and Raphael
(p. 233, Fig. 196). The careful attention to detail on the other hand, and a certain
indifference to conventional beauty shows that Holbein had learned his trade in the
north. He was on his best way to become the leading master of the German-speaking
countries when the turmoil of the Reformation put an end to all such hopes. In 1526
he left Switzerland for England with a letter of recommendation from the great
scholar, Erasmus of Rotterdam. ‘The arts here are freezing,’ Erasmus wrote com-
mending the painter to his friends, among whom was Sir Thomas More. One of
Holbein’s first jobs in England was to prepare a large group portrait of that great
scholar’s family and some detailed studies for this work are still preserved in
Windsor Castle (Fig. 230). If Holbein had hoped to get away from the turmoil of
the Reformation he must have been dis-
appointed by later events, but when he
finally settled in England for good and was
given the official title of Court Painter by
Henry VIII he had at least found a sphere
of activity which allowed him to live and to
work. He could no longer paint Madonnas,
but the tasks of a Court Painter were ex-
ceedingly manifold. He designed jewellery
and furniture, costumes for pageantries
and decorations for halls, weapons and
goblets. His main job, however, was to
paint portraits of the royal household, and
it is due to Holbein’s unfailing eye that
we still have such a vivid picture of the
men and women of Henry VIII’s period.
Fig. 233 shows his portrait of Thomas
Howard, Duke of Norfolk, the uncle of
233. HOLBEIN: Thomas Howard , Duke of
Norfolk . About 1538. Windsor Castle
S*
278
A Crisis of Art
234. Nicholas hillyarde: Portrait Miniature.
About 1590. London, Victoria and
Albert Museum
Catherine Howard who was Henry’s fifth wife, wearing the Order of the Garter.
There is nothing dramatic in these portraits of Holbein, nothing to catch the eye,
but the longer we look at them the more do they seem to reveal of the sitter’s mind
and personality. We do not doubt for a moment that they are in fact faithful records
of what Holbein saw, drawn without fear or favour. The way in which Holbein has
placed the figure in the picture shows the sure touch of the master. Nothing seems
left to chance, the whole composition is so perfectly balanced that it may easily
seem ‘obvious ’ to us. But this was Holbein’s intention. In his earlier portraits he had
still sought to display his wonderful skill in the rendering of details, to characterize a
sitter through his setting, through the things among which he spent his life (Fig. 231).
The older he got, and the more mature his art became the less did he seem in need
of any such tricks. He did not want to obtrude himself and to divert attention from
the sitter. And it is precisely for this masterly restraint that we may admire him most.
When Holbein had left the German-speaking countries painting there began to
decline to a frightening extent. And when Holbein died the arts were in a s imilar
A Crisis of Art 279
plight in England. In fact, the only branch of painting there that survived the
Reformation was that of portrait painting which Holbein had so firmly established.
Even in this branch the fashions of southern Mannerism made themselves increa-
singly felt. These ideals of courtly refinement and elegance replaced the simpler
style of Holbein.
The portrait of a young Elizabethan nobleman (Fig. 234) gives an idea of this
new type of portraiture at its best. It is a ‘miniature’ by the famous English master
Nicholas Hillyarde (1547-1619), a contemporary of Sidney and Shakespeare. We
may indeed think of Sidney’s pastorals or Shakespeare’s comedies when looking at
this dainty youth who leans languidly against a tree, surrounded by thorny wild
roses, his right hand pressed against his heart. Perhaps the miniature was intended
as the young man’s gift to the lady he was wooing, for it bears the Latin inscription
‘Dat poenas laudata fides’, which means roughly, ‘my praised faith procures my
pain ’. We ought not to ask whether these pains were any more real than the painted
thorns on the miniature. A young gallant in those days was expected to make a show
of grief and unrequited love. These signs and these sonnets were all part of a grace-
ful and elaborate game, which nobody took too seriously but in which everybody
wanted to shine by inventing new variations and new refinements.
If we look at Hillyarde’s miniature as an object designed for this game, it may no
longer strike us as affected and artificial. Let us hope that when the maiden received
this token of affection in a precious case and saw the pitiful pose of her elegant and
noble wooer, his ‘praised faith’ had at last its reward.
There was only one Protestant country in Europe where art fully survived the
crisis of the Reformation — that was the Netherlands. There, where painting had
flourished for so long, artists found a way out of their predicament; instead of
concentrating on portrait painting alone they specialized in all those types of subject-
matter to which the Protestant Church could raise no objections. Since the early
days of Van Eyck, the artists of the Netherlands had been recognized as perfect
masters in the imitation of nature. While the Italians prided themselves on being
unrivalled in the representation of the beautiful human figure in motion, they were
ready to recognize that, for sheer patience and accuracy in depicting a flower, a tree,
a barn or a flock of sheep, the ‘Flemings’ were apt to outstrip them. It was
therefore quite natural that the northern artists, who were no longer needed for
the painting of altar-panels and other devotional pictures, tried to find a market for
their recognized specialities and to paint pictures the main object of which was to
display their stupendous skill in representing the surface of things. Specialization
was not even quite new to the artists of these lands. We remember that Hieronymus
Bosch (p. 262, Fig. 220) had made a speciality of pictures of hell and of demons even
before the crisis of art. Now, when the scope of painting had become more restricted,
the painters went further along this road. They tried to develop the traditions of
28 o
A Crisis of An
235. PIETER BRUEGHEL THE elder: A Country Wedding . About 1565.
Vienna, Kunsthistorischcs Museum
northern art which reach back to the time of the Droleries on the margin of
medieval manuscripts (p. 153, Fig. 140) and to the scenes of real life represented in
fifteenth-century art (p. 198, Fig. 173). Pictures in which the painters deliberately
cultivated a certain branch or kind of subject, particularly scenes from daily life,
later became known as ‘genre pictures’ {genre being the French word for branch
or kind).
The greatest of the Flemish sixteenth-century masters of ‘genre’ was Pieter
Brueghel the Elder (1525 ?-69). We know little of his life except that he had been
to Italy, like so many northern artists of his time, and that he lived and worked in
Antwerp and Brussels Where he painted most of his pictures in the fifteen-sixties,
the decade in which the stern Duke of Alva arrived in the Netherlands.
The ‘kind’ of painting on which Brueghel concentrated was scenes from peasant
life. He painted peasants merrymaking, feasting and working, and so people have
come to think of him as one of the Flemish peasants. This is a common mistake which
we are apt to make about artists. We often are inclined to confuse their work with
their person. We think of Dickens as a member of Mr. Pickwick’s jolly circle, or of
Jules Verne as a daring inventor and traveller. If Brueghel had been a peasant himself
he could not have painted them as he did. He certainly was a townsman and his
attitude towards the rustic life of the village was very likely similar to that of Shake-
speare for whom Quince the Carpenter and Bottom the Weaver were a species of
‘downs’. It was the custom in their time to regard the country yokel as a figure of
A Crisis of Art 281
236. Detail of Fig. 235
fun. I do not think that either Shakespeare or Brueghel accepted this custom out of
snobbery but in rustic life human nature was less disguised and covered up with a
veneer of artificiality and convention than in the life of gentlefolk. Thus, when they
wanted to show up the folly of humankind they often took low life as their model.
One of the most perfect of Brueghel’s human comedies is his famous picture of a
country wedding (Fig. 235). Like most pictures, it loses a great deal in reproduction:
all details become much smaller, and the gay effect of the colours is lost. We must
therefore look at it with double care. The feast takes place in a barn, with straw
stacked up high in the background. The bride sits in front of a piece of blue cloth,
with a kind of crown suspended over her head. She sits quietly, with folded hands
282
A Crisis of Art
237. PIETER brueghel the elder: The Painter and the
Buyer. Drawing, about 1565. Vienna, Albertina
and a grin of utter contentment on her stupid face. The old man in the chair and
the woman beside her are probably her parents, while the man farther back, who is so
busy gobbling his food with his spoon, must be the bridegroom. Most of the people
at the table concentrate on eating and drinking, and we notice this is only the
beginning. In the left-hand corner a man pours out beer — a good number of empty
jugs are still in the basket — while two men with white aprons are carrying ten more
platefuls of pie or porridge on an improvised tray. One of the guests passes the
plates to the table. But much more is going on. There is the crowd in the background
trying to get in; there are the musicians, one of them with a pathetic, forlorn and
hungry look in his eyes, as he watches the food being carried past; there are the two
outsiders at the comer of the table, the friar and the magistrate, engrossed in their
own conversation; and there is the child in the foreground who has got hold of a
plate, and a feathered cap much too large for its little head, and who is completely
absorbed in licking the delicious food — a picture of innocent greed. But what is even
more admirable than all this wealth of anecdote, wit and observation, is the way in
which Brueghel has organized his picture so that it does not look crowded or con-
fusing. Tintoretto himself could not have produced a more convincing picture of
283
A Crisis of Art
a crowded space than did Brueghel with his
device of the table receding into the back-
ground and the movement of people starting
with the crowd at the barn door, leading up to
the foreground and the scene of the food car-
riers, and back again through the gesture of
the man serving the table who leads our eyes
directly to the small but central figure of the
grinning bride.
In these gay, but by no means simple, pic-
tures, Brueghel had discovered a new kingdom
for art which the generations of Netherlands
painters after him were to explore to the full.
In France the crisis of art took again a dif-
ferent turn. Situated between Italy and the
northern countries, it was influenced by both.
The vigorous tradition of French medieval art
was at first threatened by the inrush of the
Italianate fashion which French painters found
as difficult to adopt as did their colleagues in
the Netherlands (p. 261, Fig. 219). The form
in which Italian art finally was accepted by
high society was that of the elegant and refined
Italian Mannerists of Cellini’s type (Fig. 225).
We can see its influence in the lively reliefs
from a fountain by the French sculptor, Jean
Goujon (died 1566 ?) (Fig. 238). There is some-
thing both of Parmigianino’s fastidious elegance
and of Jean Boulogne’s virtuosity in these ex-
quisitely graceful figures and the way they are
fitted into the narrow strips reserved for them.
A generation later an artist arose in France
in whose etchings the bizarre inventions of
the Italian Mannerists were represented in the
spirit of Pieter Brueghel : the Lor rainian J acques
Callot (1592-1635). Like Tintoretto or even El
Greco, he loved to show the most surprising
combinations of tall, gaunt figures and wide un-
expected vistas, but, like Brueghel, he used
these devices to portray the follies of mankind
238. jean goujon: Nymph. From the
Fontaine des Innocents. Between 1547
and 1549. Paris, Louvre
A Crisis of Art
239. callot: Two Italian Clozvns. Etching from
the series Balli di Sfessania. Published 1622
through scenes from the life of its outcasts, soldiers, cripples, beggars and strolling
players (Fig. 239). But by the time Callot popularized these extravaganzas in his
etchings most painters of his day had turned their attention to new problems which
filled the talk of the studios in Rome, Antwerp and Madrid.
240. The ‘ Mannerist 9 artist's day-dream:
Taddeo Zuccari at work on the scaffolding
of a palace is being watched with admira-
tion by the aged Michelangelo. The goddess
of Fame trumpets his triumph all over the
world. Drawing (detail) by F. Zuccari.
About 1590. Vienna, Albertina
241. tintoretto: St. George's fight with the Dragon. Painted about 1555* London, National Gallery
242. EL GRECO: Portrait of Brother Hortensio Felix Paravicino. Painted about 1609.
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts
chapter 19 • VISION AND VISIONS
Catholic Europe , First Half of the Seventeenth Century
243. An early Baroque church: II Gesii in Rome. Designed by GIACOMO DELLA PORTA.
About 1575
T HE history of art is sometimes described as the story of a succession of
various styles. We hear how the Romanesque or Norman style of the
twelfth century with its round arches was succeeded by the Gothic style
with the pointed arch; how the Gothic style was supplanted by the Renaissance*
which had its beginnings in Italy in the early fifteenth century and slowly gained
ground in all the countries of Europe. The style which followed the Renaissance is
usually called Baroque. But* while it is easy to identify the earlier styles by definite
marks of recognition, this is not so simple in the case of Baroque. The fact is that
from the Renaissance onwards* almost up to our own time, architects have used
the same basic forms, columns, pilasters, cornices, entablatures and mouldings,
all of which were originally borrowed from classical ruins. In a sense, therefore, it
is true to say that the Renaissance style of building has continued from Brunel-
leschi’s days to our own, and many books on architecture speak of this whole period
as Renaissance. On the other hand, it is natural that within such a long period tastes
T
288 Vision and Visions
and fashions in building must have varied considerably, and it is convenient to have
different labels by which to distinguish these changing styles. It is a strange fact
that many of these labels which to us are simple names of styles were originally
words of abuse or derision. The word ‘Gothic* was first used by the Italian art
critics of the Renaissance to denote the style which they considered barbarous, and
which they thought had been brought into Italy by the Goths who destroyed the
Roman Empire and sacked its cities. The word ‘Mannerism* still retains for many
people its original connotation of affectation and shallow imitation, of which critics
of the seventeenth century had accused the artists of the late sixteenth century. The
word ‘Baroque’ was a term employed by critics of a later period who fought against
the tendencies of the seventeenth century, and wanted to hold them up to ridicule.
Baroque really means absurd or grotesque, and it was used by men who insisted
that the forms of classical building should never have been used or combined except
in the ways adopted by the Greeks and Romans. To disregard the strict rules of
ancient architecture seemed to these critics a deplorable lapse of taste — whence
they labelled the style Baroque. It is not altogether easy for us to appreciate these
distinctions. We have become too accustomed to seeing buildings in our cities
which defy the rules of classical architecture, or misunderstand them altogether.
So we have become insensitive in these matters and the old quarrels
seem very remote from the architectural questions which interest us. To us a
church facade like that in Fig. 243 may not seem a very exciting thing, because we
have seen so many good and bad imitations of this type of building that we hardly
turn our heads to look at them; but when it was first built in Rome, in 1575, it
was a most revolutionary building. It was not just one more church in Rome,
where there are many churches. It was the church of the newly founded Order of
the Jesuits, on which high hopes were set for the combating of the Reformation all
over Europe. Its very shape was to be on a new and unusual plan; the Renaissance
idea of round and symmetrical church building had been rejected as unsuited to
divine service, and a new, simple and ingenious plan had been worked out which
was to be accepted all over Europe. The church should be in the form of a cross,
topped by a high and stately cupola. In the one large, oblong space, known as the
nave, the congregation could assemble without hindrance, and look towards the
main altar. This stood at the end of the oblong space, and behind it was the apse
which was similar in form to that of the early basilicas. To suit the requirements
of private devotion, and adoration of individual saints, a row of small chapels was
distributed on either side of the nave each of which had an altar of its own, and
there were two larger chapels at the ends of the arms of the cross. It is a simple and
ingenious way of planning a church which has since been widely used. It combines
the main features of medieval churches — their oblong shape, emphasizing the main
altar — with the achievements of Renaissance-planning in which so much stress is
Vision and Visions 289
laid on large and roomy interiors into which the light would stream through a
majestic cupola.
The fa9ade of II Gesii was built by the celebrated architect Giacomo della
Porta (1541 ?-i6o 4). It, too, may seem unexciting to us, because it was to serve as a
model for so many later church facades, but looking at it closely, we soon realize
that it must have impressed contemporaries as being no less new and ingenious than
the interior of the church. We see at once that it is composed of the elements of
classical architecture — we find all the set pieces together: columns (or rather, half-
columns and pilasters) carrying an ‘architrave’ crowned by a high ‘attic’ which,
in turn, carries the upper storey. Even the distribution of these set pieces employs
some features of classical architecture: the large middle entrance, framed by
columns and flanked by two smaller entrances, recalls the scheme of triumphal arches
(p. 177, Fig. 158) which became as firmly implanted in the architects’ mind as
the major chord in the mind of musicians. There is nothing in this simple and
majestic facade to suggest deliberate defiance of the classical rules for the sake of
sophisticated caprices. But the way in which the classical elements are fused into a
pattern shows that Roman and Greek, and even Renaissance rules have been left
behind. The most striking feature in this facade is that each column or pilaster is
doubled, as if to give the whole structure greater richness, greater variety and
solemnity. The second trait we notice is the care which the artist has taken to avoid
repetition and monotony and to arrange the parts so as to form a climax in the
centre where the main entrance is emphasized by a double frame. If we turn
back to earlier buildings composed of similar elements, we immediately see the
great change in character. Brunelleschi’s ‘Capella Pazzi’ (p. 161, Fig. 147) looks
infinitely light and graceful by comparison, in its wonderful simplicity, and
Bramante’s ‘Tempietto’ (p. 209, Fig. 183) almost austere in its clear and straight-
forward arrangements. Even the rich complexities of Sansovino’s ‘Library’ (p. 237,
Fig. 199) appear simple by comparison, because there the same pattern is repeated
again and again. If you have seen a part of it, you have seen it all. In Porta’s facade
of the first Jesuit church everything depends on the effect given by the whole. It is
all fused together into one large and complex pattern. Perhaps the most character-
istic trait in this respect is the care the architect has taken to connect the upper and
the lower storeys. He has used a form of volutes which has no place at all in classical
architecture. We need only imagine a form of this kind somewhere on a Greek
temple or a Roman theatre to realize how utterly out of place it would seem. In fact,
it is these curves and scrolls that have been responsible for much of the censure
showered on Baroque builders by the upholders of pure classical tradition. But if we
cover the offending ornaments with a piece of paper and try to visualize the building
without them, we must admit that they are not merely ornamental. Without them the
building would ‘fall apart’. They help to give it that essential coherence and unity
290 Vision and Visions
which was the aim of the artist. In the course of time, Baroque architects had to use
ever more bold and unusual devices to achieve the essential unity of a large pattern.
Seen in isolation these devices often look puzzling enough, but in all good buildings
they are essential to the architect’s purpose.
The development of painting out of the deadlock of Mannerism into a style far
richer in possibilities than that of the earlier great masters, was in some respects
similar to that of Baroque architecture. In the great paintings of Tintoretto and of
El Greco we have seen the growth of some ideas which gained increasing importance
in the art of the seventeenth century: the emphasis on light and colour, the disre-
gard of simple balance, and the preference for more complicated compositions.
Nevertheless, seventeenth-century painting is not just a continuation of the Man-
nerist style. At least people at the time did not feel it to be so. They felt that art had
got into a rather dangerous rut and must be got out of it. People liked talking about
art in those days. In Rome, in particular, there were cultured gentlemen who enjoyed
discussions on the various ‘movements ’ among the artists of their time, who liked to
compare them with older masters, and to take sides in their quarrels and intrigues.
Such discussions were in themselves something rather new in the world of art. They
had begun in the sixteenth century with such questions as whether painting was
better than sculpture, or whether design was more important than colour or vice
versa (the Florentines backing design, the Venetians colour). Now, their topic was
different: they talked about two artists who had come to Rome from northern Italy
and whose methods seemed to them utterly opposed. One was Annibale Carracci
(1560-1609) from Bologna, the other Michelangelo da Caravaggio (1565 ?-i6io)
from a little place near Milan. Both
these artists seemed tired of Manner-
ism. But the ways in which they over-
came its sophistications were very
different. Annibale Carracci was a
member of a family of painters who
had studied the art of Venice and of
Correggio. On his arrival in Rome, he
fell under the spell of Raphael’s works
which he greatly admired. He aimed at
recapturing something of their simpli-
city and beauty instead of deliberately
contradicting them, as the Mannerists
had done. Later critics have attributed
to him the intention of imitating the
best in all the great painters of the past.
It is unlikely that he ever formulated a
244. Annibale Carracci: The Virgin mourm
Christ . Altar-painting. About 1605. Naples,
National Museum
Vision and Visions
291
245. CARAVAGGIO: Doubting Thomas. About 1600. Berlin, Schlosser
programme of this kind (which is called ‘eclectic’). That was done later, in the
academies or art schools which took his work as a model. Carracci himself was too
much of a real artist to adopt such a foolish idea. But the battle-cry of his party
among the cliques of Rome was the cultivation of classical beauty. We can see his
intention in the altar-picture of the Holy Virgin mourning over the dead body of
Christ (Fig. 244). We need only think back to Griinewald’s tormented body of Christ
to realize how careful Annibale Carracci was not to remind us of the horrors of death
and of the agonies of pain. The picture itself is as simple and harmonious in arrange-
ment as that of an early Renaissance painter. Nevertheless, we would not easily
mistake it for a Renaissance painting. The way in which the light is made to play
over the body of the Saviour, the whole appeal to our emotions, is quite different,
is Baroque. It is easy to dismiss such a picture as sentimental, but we must not forget
the purpose for which it was made. It is an altar-painting, meant to be contemplated
in prayer and devotion with candles burning before it.
Whatever we may feel about Carracci’s methods, Caravaggio and his partisans
certainly did not think highly of them. The two painters, it is true, were on the best
of terms — which was no easy matter in the case of Caravaggio, for he was of a wild
and irascible temper, quick to take offence, and even to run a dagger through a man.
But his work was on different lines from Carracci’s. To be afraid of ugliness seemed
to Caravaggio a contemptible weakness. What he wanted was truth. Truth as he
saw it. He had no liking for classical models, nor any respect for ‘ideal beauty’. He
wanted to do away with convention and to think about art afresh. Some people
292 Vision and Visions
thought he was mainly out to shock the public ; that he had no respect for any kind
of beauty or tradition. He was one of the first painters at whom these accusations
were levelled; after his time nearly every modern movement in art had to face
similar complaints. In point of fact, Caravaggio was far too great and serious an
artist to fritter away his time in trying to cause a sensation. While the critics argued,
he was busy at work. And his work has lost nothing of its boldness in the three
centuries and more since he did it. Consider his painting of St. Thomas (Fig. 245) :
the three apostles staring at Jesus, one of them poking with his finger into the
wound in His side, look unconventional enough. One can imagine that such a paint-
ing struck devout people as being irreverent and even outrageous. They were
accustomed to seeing the apostles as dignified figures draped in beautiful folds —
here they looked like common labourers, with weathered faces and wrinkled brows.
But, Caravaggio would have answered, they were old labourers, common people —
and as to the unseemly gesture of Doubting Thomas, the Bible is quite explicit
about it. Jesus says to him: ‘Reach hither thy hand and thrust it into my side: and
be not faithless but believing’ (St. John xx. 27).
Caravggio’s ‘naturalism’, that is, his intention to copy nature faithfully, whether
we think it ugly or beautiful, was perhaps more devout than Carracci’s emphasis on
beauty. Caravaggio must have read the Bible again and again, and pondered its
words. He was one of the great artists, like Giotto and Diirer before him, who wanted
to see the holy events before his own eyes as if they had been happening in his
neighbour’s house. And he did everything possible to make the figures of the ancient
texts look more real and tangible. Even his way of handling light and shade help to
this end. His light does not make the body look graceful and soft: it is harsh and
almost glaring in its contrast to the deep shadows. But it makes the whole strange
scene stand out with an uncompromising honesty which few of his contemporaries
could appreciate, but which had a decisive effect on later artists.
Neither Annibale Carracci nor Caravaggio is now usually reckoned among the
most famous masters; they fell out of fashion in the nineteenth century, though
they are coming into their own again. But the impulse they both gave to the art
of painting can hardly be imagined. Both of them worked in Rome, and Rome,
at the time, was the centre of the civilized world. Artists from all parts of Europe
came there, took part in the discussions on painting, took sides in the quarrels of
the cliques, studied the old masters, and returned to their native countries with
tales of the latest ‘movements’ — much as modem artists used to do with regard
to Paris. According to their national traditions and temperaments artists pre-
ferred one or the other of the rival schools in Rome, and the greatest of them
developed their own personal medium from what they had learned of these foreign
movements. Rome still remains the best vantage point from which to glance at the
splendid panorama of p ainting in the countries adhering to Roman Catholicism.
Vision and Visions
293
246. reni: The Dawn (Aurora). Fresco, painted 1613, on a ceiling in the
Palazzo Rospigliosi, Rome
Of the many Italian masters who developed their style in Rome, the most famous
was probably Guido Reni (1575-1642), a painter from Bologna who after a brief
period of hesitation threw in his lot with the school of the Carracci. His fame, like
that of his master, once stood immeasurably higher than it happens to stand just
now. There was a time when his name ranked with that of Raphael, and if we look at
Fig. 246 we may realize why. Reni painted this fresco on the ceiling of a palazzo in
Rome in 1613. It represents Aurora and the youthful sun-god Apollo in his chariot,
round which the fair maidens of the Hours (the Horae) dance their joyful measure
preceded by the torch-bearing child, the Morning Star. Such are the grace and
beauty of this picture of the radiant rising day that one can understand how it
reminded people of Raphael and his frescoes in the Farnesina (p. 235, Fig. 197).
Reni wanted them to think of this great master whom he had set out to emulate.
If modern critics have often thought less highly of Guido Reni’s achievements, this
may be the reason. They feel, or fear, that this very emulation of another master
has made Reni’s work too self-conscious, too deliberate in its striving for pure
beauty. We need not quarrel over these distinctions. It is no doubt true that Reni
differed from Raphael in his whole approach. With Raphael, we feel that the sense
of beauty and serenity flowed naturally from his whole nature and art; with Reni
we feel that he chose to paint like this as a matter of principle, and that if perchance
Caravaggio’s disciples had convinced him that he was wrong, he could have adopted
a different style. But it was not Reni’s fault that these matters of principle had been
brought up and had permeated the minds and the conversation of the painters. In
fact, it was no one’s fault. Art had been developed to such a point that artists were
inevitably conscious of the choice of methods before them. And once we accept
this, we are free to admire the way in which Reni carried out his programme of
beauty, how he deliberately discarded anything in nature that he considered low and
ugly or unsuitable for his lofty ideas, and how his quest for forms more perfect and
294
Vision and Visions
247. poussin: l Et in Arcadia ego’. About 1638, Paris, Louvre
more ideal than reality were rewarded with success. It was Annibale Carracci, Reni
and his followers, who formulated the programme of idealizing, of ‘beautifying’
nature, according to the standards set by the classical statues. We call it the
neo-classical or ‘academic’ programme as distinct from classical art which is not
bound up with any programme at all. The disputes over it are not likely to cease so
soon, but no one denies that among its champions have been great masters who gave
us a glimpse of a world of purity and beauty without which we would be the poorer.
The greatest of the ‘academic’ masters was the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin
( l 594-x665), who made Rome his adopted home town. Poussin studied the classical
statues with passionate zeal, because he wanted their beauty to help him con-
vey his vision of bygone lands of innocence and dignity. Fig. 247 represents one
of the most famous results of these unremitting studies. It shows a calm sunny
southern landscape. Beautiful young men and a fair and dignified young woman
have gathered round a large tomb of stone. One of the shepherds— for shepherds
they are, as we see by their wreaths and their shepherds’ staffs— has knelt down to
try to decipher the inscription on the tomb, a second one points towards it while he
looks at the fair shepherdess who, like her companion opposite, stands in silent
melancholy. It is inscribed in Latin and it says ‘Et in Arcadia ego’ (Even in Arcady
I am): I, Death, reign even in the idyllic dreamland of the pastorals, in Arcady.
Now we understand the wonderful gesture of awe and contemplation with which
the framing figures gaze at the tomb, and we admire even more the beauty with
248. Claude lorrain: Landscape with the Rest on the Flight to Egypt. Painted in 1661.
Leningrad, Hermitage
which the reading figures answer each other’s movements. The arrangement seems
simple enough but it is a simplicity born of immense artistic knowledge. Only such
knowledge could evoke this nostalgic vision of calm repose in which death has lost
its terror.
It is for the same mood of nostalgic beauty that the works of another Italianized
Frenchman became famous. He was Claude Lorrain (1600-82), some seven years
younger than Poussin. Lorrain studied the landscape of the Roman Campagna, the
plains and hills round Rome with their lovely southern hues and their majestic
reminders of a great past. Like Poussin, he showed in his sketches that he was a
perfect master of realistic representation of nature, and his studies of trees are a
joy to look at. But for his finished pictures and etchings, he selected only such motifs
as he considered worthy of a place in a dreamlike vision of the past, and he dipped it
all in a golden light or a silvery air which appear to transfigure the whole scene
(Fig. 248). It was Claude who first opened people’s eyes to the sublime beauty of
nature, and for nearly a century after his death travellers used to judge a piece of
real scenery according to his standards. If it reminded them of his visions, they
called it lovely and sat down to picnic there. Rich Englishmen went even farther
and decided to model the piece of nature they called their own, in their parks on
their estates, on Claude’s dreams of beauty. In this way, many a piece of the lovely
English countryside should really bear the signature of the French painter who
settled in Italy and made the programme of the Carracci his own.
296 Vision and Visions
The one northern artist to come most directly into contact with the Roman
atmosphere of Carracci’s and Caravaggio’s days was a generation older than Poussin
and Claude, and about as old as Guido Reni. It was the Fleming Peter Paul Rubens
(1577-1640), who came to Rome in 1600 when he was twenty-three years old —
perhaps the most impressionable age. He must have listened to many heated
discussions on art, and studied a great number of new and older works, not only in
Rome, but also in Genoa and Mantua (where he stayed for some time). He listened
and learned with keen interest, but does not seem to have joined any of the ‘move-
ments ’ or groups. In his heart he remained a Flemish artist — an artist from the
country where Van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden and Brueghel had worked.
These painters from the Netherlands had always been most interested in the varie-
gated surfaces of things; they had tried to use all artistic means known to them to
express the texture of cloth and living flesh, in short to paint as faithfully as possible
everything the eye could see. They had not troubled about the standards of beauty
so sacred to their Italian colleagues, and they had not even always shown much
concern for dignified subjects. It was in this tradition that Rubens had grown up,
and all his admiration for the new art that was developing in Italy does not seem to
have shaken his fundamental belief that a painter’s business was to paint the world
around him; to paint what he liked, to make us feel that he enjoyed the manifold
living beauty of things. To such an approach there was nothing contradictory in
Caravaggio’s and Carracci’s art. Rubens admired the way in which Carracci and his
school revived the painting of classical stories and myths and arranged impressive
altar-panels for the edification of the faithful ; but he also admired the uncompromi-
sing sincerity with which Caravaggio studied nature.
When Rubens returned to Antwerp in 1608 he was a man of thirty-one, who
had learned everything there was to be learned; he had acquired such facility in
handling brush and colour, figures and drapery, and in arranging large-scale
compositions that he had no rival north of the Alps. His predecessors in Flanders
had mostly painted on a small scale. He had brought from Italy the predilection for
huge canvases to decorate churches and palaces, and this suited the taste of the
dignitaries and princes. He had learned the art of arranging the figures on a vast
scale, and of using light and colours to increase the general effect. Fig. 249, a sketch
for the painting over the High Altar of an Antwerp church, shows how well he
had studied his Italian predecessors, and how boldly he developed their ideas.
It is again the old time-honoured theme of the Holy Virgin surrounded by saints,
with which artists had grappled at the time of the Wilton diptych (p. 157, Fig. 143),
Bellini’s ‘Madonna’ (p. 242, Fig. 201), or Titian’s ‘Pesaro Madonna’ (p. 243,
Fig. 202), and it may be worth while to turn up these illustrations once more to see
the freedom and ease with which Rubens handled the ancient task. One thing is clear
at the first glance: there is more movement, more light, more space, and there are
Vision and Visions
297
249. rubens: The Betrothal of St. Catherine. Sketch for a large
altar-painting. About 1628. Berlin, Kaiser-Friedrich Museum
more figures in this painting than in any of the earlier ones. The saints are crowd-
ing to the lofty throne of the Virgin in a festive throng. In the foreground the
Bishop St. Augustine, the Martyr St. Laurence with the grill on which he suffered,
andthemonk St. NicholasofTolentino,leadthespectatoronto their object of worship.
St. George with the Dragon, and St. Sebastian with a quiver and arrows, look into
each other’s eyes in fervent emotion, while a warrior — the palm of martyrdom in
his hand — is about to kneel before the throne. A group of women, among them a
nun, are looking up enraptured to the main scene in which a young girl, assisted by
a little angel, is falling on her knees to receive a ring from the litde Christ-child who
is bending towards her from His mother’s lap. It is the legend of the betrothal of
St. Catherine, who saw such a scene in a vision and considered herself the Bride of
250. rubens: Head of a Child (probably the artist’s eldest daughter Clara Serena).
About 1615. Vaduz, Liechtenstein Gallery
Vision and Visions 299
Christ. St. Joseph watches benevolently from behind the throne, and St. Peter and
St. Paul — one recognizable by the key, the other by the sword — stand in deep
contemplation. They make an effective contrast to the imposing figure of St. John
on the other side, standing alone, bathed in light, throwing up his arms in ecstatic
admiration while two charming little angels drag his reluctant lamb up the steps
of the throne. From the sky another pair of little angels come rushing down to hold
a wreath of laurels over the Virgin’s head. Having looked at the details, we must
once more consider the whole, and admire the grand sweep with which Rubens has
contrived to hold all the figures together, and to impart to it all an atmosphere of
joyful and festive solemnity. Small wonder that a master who could plan such vast
pictures with such sureness of hand and eye soon had more orders for paintings
than he could cope with alone. But this did not worry him. Rubens was a man
of great organizing ability and great personal charm; many gifted painters in
Flanders were proud to work under his direction and thereby to learn from him.
If an order for a new picture came from one of the churches, or from one of the
kings or princes of Europe, he would sometimes paint only a small coloured sketch.
(Fig. 249 is such a colour sketch for a large composition.) It would be the task
of his pupils or assistants to transfer these ideas on to the large canvas, and only
when they had finished grounding and painting according to the master’s ideas he
might take the brush again and touch up a face here and a silken dress there, or
smooth out any harsh contrasts. He was confident that his brushwork could quickly
impart life to anything, and he was right. For that was the greatest secret ofRubens’s
art — his magic skill in making anything alive, intensely and joyfully alive. We can
best gauge and admire this mastery of his in some of the simple paintings done for
his own amusement. Fig. 250 shows the head of a little girl, probably Rubens’s
daughter. There arc no tricks of composition here, no splendid robes or streams
of light, but a simple en face portrait of a child. And yet it seems to breathe and
palpitate like living flesh. Compared with this, the portraits of earlier centuries
seem somehow remote and unreal — however great they may be as works of art. It
is vain to try to analyse how Rubens achieved this impression of gay vitality, but it
surely had something to do with the bold and delicate touches of light with which
he indicated the moisture of the lips, and the modelling of the face and hair. To an
even greater degree than Titian before him, he used the brush as his main instru-
ment. His paintings are no longer drawings carefully modelled in colour — they are
produced by ‘painterly’ means, and that enhances the impression of life and vigour.
It was a combination of his unrivalled gifts in arranging large colourful compo-
sitions, and in infusing them with buoyant energy, that secured a fame and success
for Rubens such as no painter had enjoyed before. His art was so eminently suitable
to enhance the pomp and splendour of palaces, and to glorify the powers of this
world, that he enjoyed something like a monopoly in the sphere in which he moved.
Vision and Visions
300
251. rubens: Allegory on the Blessings of Peace. About 1630.
London, National Gallery
It was the time during which the religious and social tensions of Europe came to
a head in the fearful Thirty Years’ War on the Continent, and in the Civil War in
England. On the one side stood the absolute monarchs and their courts, most of
them supported by the Catholic Church — on the other the rising merchant cities,
most of them Protestant. The Netherlands themselves were divided into Protestant
Holland which resisted Spanish ‘Catholic’ domination, and Catholic Flanders,
ruled from Antwerp under Spanish allegiance. It was as the painter of the Catholic
camp that Rubens rose to his unique position. He accepted commissions from the
Jesuits in Antwerp and from the Catholic rulers of Flanders, from King Louis XIII
of France and his crafty mother Maria de’ Medici, from King Philip III of Spain
and King Charles I of England, who conferred a knighthood on him. When
travelling from court to court as an honoured guest, he was often charged with
delicate political and diplomatic missions, foremost among them that of effecting
a reconciliation between England and Spain in the interest of what we would call
today a ‘reactionary’ bloc. Meanwhile he remained in touch with the scholars of his
age, and engaged in learned Latin correspondence on questions of archaeology and
art. His self-portrait with the nobleman’s sword (Fig. 253) shows that he was very
conscious of his unique position. Yet there is nothing pompous or vain in the shrewd
look of his eyes. He remained a true artist. All the while, pictures of dazzling
mastery poured out from his Antwerp studios on a stupendous scale. Under
his hand, the classical fables and allegorical inventions became as convincingly
Vision and Visions 301
252. Detail of Fig. 251
alive as the picture of his own daughter. Allegorical pictures are usually regarded
as rather boring and abstract, but for the age of Rubens they were a convenient
means of expressing ideas. Fig. 251 is such a picture which Rubens is said to have
302 Vision and Visions
brought as a gift to Charles I, when he tried to induce him to make peace with
Spain. The painting contrasts the blessings of peace with the horrors of war.
Minerva, the goddess of wisdom and the civilizing arts, drives away Mars who
is about to withdraw — his dreadful companion, the Fury of war, having already
turned back. And under the protection of Minerva the joys of peace are spread out
before our eyes, symbols of fruitfulness and plenty as only Rubens could conceive
them; Peace offering her breast to a child, a faun blissfully eyeing the gorgeous
fruits, the other companions of Bacchus, dancing maenads with gold and treasures,
and the panther playing peacefully like a big cat; on the other side three children
with anxious looks, fleeing from the terror of war to the haven of peace and plenty,
crowned by a young genius. No one who loses himself in the rich details of this
picture, with its vivid contrasts and glowing colours, can fail to see that these ideas
were to Rubens not pale abstractions but forceful realities. Perhaps it is because
of that quality that some people must first get accustomed to Rubens before they
begin to love and understand him. He had no use for the ‘ideal’ forms of classical
beauty. They were too remote and abstract for him. His men and women are living
beings such as he saw and liked. And so, since slenderness was not the fashion in the
Flanders of his day, some people object to the ‘fat women’ in his pictures. This
criticism, of course, has little to do with art and we need not, therefore, take it too
seriously. But, since it is so often made, it may be well to realize that joy in exuber-
ant and almost boisterous life in all its manifestations saved Rubens from becoming
a mere virtuoso of his art. It turned his paintings from mere Baroque decorations
of festive halls into masterpieces which retain their vitality even within the chilling
atmosphere of museums.
Among Rubens’s many famous pupils and assistants, the greatest and most inde-
pendent was Van Dyck (1599-1641), who was twenty-two years his junior, and
belonged to the generation of Poussin and Claude Lorrain. He soon acquired all
the virtuosity of Rubens in rendering the texture and surface of things, whether it
were silk or human flesh, but he differed widely from his master in temperament
and mood. It seems that Van Dyck was not a healthy man, and in his paintings a
languid and slightly melancholy mood often prevails. It may have been this quality
that appealed to the austere noblemen of Genoa and to the cavaliers of Charles I’s
entourage. In 1632 he had become the Court Painter of Charles I, and his name
was anglicized into Sir Anthony Vandyke. It is to him that we owe an artistic
record of this society with its defiantly aristocratic bearing, and its cult of courtly
refinement. His portrait of Charles I (Fig. 255), just dismounted from his horse on a
hunting expedition, shows the Stuart monarch as he would have wished to live in
history : a figure of matchless elegance, of unquestioned authority and high culture,
the patron of the arts, and the upholder of the divine right of kings, a man who
needs no outward trappings of power to enhance his natural dignity. No wonder
253 - Rubens: Self ’Portrait. Painted about 1639. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum
254 * VANDYKE: Lord John and Lord Bernard Stuart . Painted about 1638.
London, Lady Louis Mountbatten
Vision and Visions
305
255. Vandyke: Charles I of England. About 1635. Paris, Louvre
that a painter who could bring out these qualities in his portraits with such perfec-
tion was eagerly sought by society. In fact, Vandyke was so overburdened with
commissions for portraits that he, like his master Rubens, was unable to cope with
them all himself. He had a number of assistants who painted the costumes of his
sitters arranged on dolls, and he did not always paint even the whole of the head.
Some of these portraits are uncomfortably near the flattering fashion-dummies
of later periods, and there is no doubt that Vandyke established a dangerous
precedent which did much harm to portrait painting. But all this cannot detract
from the greatness of his best portraits. Nor should it make us forget that it was he,
more than anyone else, who helped to crystallize the ideals of blue-blooded nobility
and gentlemanly ease (Fig. 254) which enriches our vision of man no less than did
Rubens’s robust and sturdy figures of over-brimming life.
On one of his journeys to Spain, Rubens had met a young painter who was bom
in the same year as his pupil Vandyke, and who filled a position at the court of
U*
306
Vision and Visions
King Philip IV in Madrid similar to
that of Vandyke at the Court of Charles
I. It was the painter Diego Velazquez
(1599-1660). Though he had not yet
been to Italy, Velazquez had been pro-
foundly impressed by the discoveries
and the manner of Caravaggio, which
he got to know through the work of
imitators. He had absorbed the pro-
gramme of ‘naturalism’, and devoted
his art to the dispassionate observation
of nature regardless of any conventions.
Fig. 256 shows one of his early works,
an old man selling water in the streets
of Seville. It is a genre picture of the
type the Netherlander invented to
display their skill, but it is done with
all the intensity and penetration of
Caravaggio’s ‘St. Thomas’ (p. 291,
Fig. 245). The old man with his worn
and wrinkly face and his ragged cloak, the big earthenware flask with its rounded
shape, the surface of the glazed jug and the play of light on the transparent glass,
all this is painted so convincingly that we feel we could touch the objects. No
one who stands before this picture feels inclined to ask whether the objects re-
presented are beautiful or ugly, or whether the scene it represents is important
or trivial. Not even the colours are strictly beautiful by themselves. Brown, grey,
greenish tones prevail. And yet, the whole is joined together in such a rich and
mellow harmony that the picture remains quite unforgettable to anyone who has
ever paused in front of it.
On the advice of Rubens, Velazquez obtained leave to go to Rome to study the
paintings of the great masters. He went there in 1630 but soon returned to Madrid
where, apart from a second Italian journey, he remained as a famous and respected
member of the court of Philip IV. His main task was to paint the portraits of the
King, and the members of the royal family (see frontispiece). Few of these men had
attractive, or even interesting, faces. They were men and women who insisted on
their dignity, and who dressed in a stiff and unbecoming fashion. Not a very inviting
task for a painter, it would seem. But Velazquez transformed these portraits, as by
magic, into some of the most fascinating pieces of painting the world has ever seen.
He had long given up too close an adherence to Caravaggio’s manner. He had
studied the brushwork of Rubens and of Titian but there is nothing ‘secondhand*
256. VELAZQUEZ: The Water-seller of Seville.
About 1620. London, Duke of Wellington
Collection
Vision and Visions
307
257. Velazquez: Prince Philip Prosper of Spain. About 1 660. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum
in his mode of approaching nature. With a few sure touches of the brush, he is able
to convey the effect of a form and the texture of a surface. Velazquez’s most mature
works rely to such an extent on the effect of the brushwork, and on the delicate
harmony of the colours, that illustrations can give only very little idea of what the
originals are like. However, an illustration such as Fig. 257 of a two-year-old prince,
preserves at least something of the charm of these works. In the original, the various
shades of red (from the rich Persian carpet, the velvet chair, the curtain, the sleeves
308 Vision and Visions
and the rosy cheeks of the child, combined with the cool and silvery tones of white
and grey which shade into the background, result in a unique harmony. There is
nothing showy in Velazquez’s manner, nothing that strikes us at the first glance. But
the longer we look at his paintings, the more we come to admire his qualities as an
artist. Even a little motif like the small dog on the red chair reveals an unobtrusive
mastery which is truly miraculous. If we look back at the little dog on Jan van Eyck’s
portrait of the Arnolfini couple (p. 174, Fig. 155) we see with what different means
great artists can achieve their effects. Van Eyck took pains to copy every curly hair
of the litde creature — Velazquez, two hundred years later, tried only to catch its
characteristic impression. Like Leonardo, only more so, he relied on our imagina-
tion to follow his guidance and to supplement what he had left out. Though he did
not paint one separate hair, his little dog looks, in effect, more furry and natural
than Van Eyck’s. It was for effects like these that the founders of Impressionism in
nineteenth-century Paris admired Velazquez above all other painters of the past.
To see and observe nature with ever-fresh eyes, to discover and enjoy ever-new
harmonies of colours and lights, had become the essential task of the painter. In
this new zeal, the great masters of Catholic Europe found themselves at one with
the painters on the other side of the political barrier, the great artists of the
Protestant Netherlands.
258. An artists' pub in seventeenth-century Rome, with caricatures on the wall.
Drawing by pieter van laar. Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett
chapter 20 • THE MIRROR OF NATURE
Holland in the Seventeenth Century
259. A Dutch seventeenth-century town hall: The Castle (former town hall) of Amsterdam.
Designed by jakob van kampen in 1648
T HE division of Europe into a Catholic and a Protestant camp affected even
the art of small countries like the Netherlands. The southern Netherlands
which today we call Belgium had remained Catholic, and we have seen
how Rubens in Antwerp received innumerable commissions from churches,
princes and kings to paint vast canvases for the glorification of their power. The
northern provinces of the Netherlands, however, had risen against their Catholic
overlords, the Spaniards, and most of the inhabitants of their rich merchant towns
adhered to the Protestant faith. The taste of these Protestant merchants of Holland
310 The Mirror of Nature
was very different from that prevailing across the border. These men were rather
comparable in their outlook to the Puritans in England: devout, hard-working,
parsimonious men, most of whom disliked the exuberant pomp of the southern
manner. Though their outlook mellowed as their security increased and their
wealth grew, these Dutch burghers of the seventeenth century never accepted the
full Baroque style which had held sway in Catholic Europe. Even in architecture
they preferred a certain sober restraint. When, in the middle of the seventeenth
century, at the peak of Holland’s successes, the citizens of Amsterdam decided to
erect a large town hall which was to reflect the pride and achievement of their
new-born nation, they chose a model which, for all its grandeur, looks simple in
outline and sparing in decoration (Fig. 259).
We have seen that the effect on painting of the victory of Protestantism was even
more marked (p. 274). We know that the catastrophe was so great that both in
England and Germany, where the arts had flourished as much as anywhere during
the Middle Ages, the career of a painter or a sculptor ceased to attract native
talents. We remember that in the Netherlands, where the tradition of good crafts-
manship was so strong, painters had to concentrate on certain branches of painting
to which there was no objection on religious grounds.
The most important of these branches that could continue in a Protestant com-
munity, as Holbein had experienced in his day, was portrait painting. Many a
successful merchant wanted to hand down his likeness to those after him, many
a worthy burgher who had been elected alderman or burgomaster desired to be
painted with the insignia of his office. Moreover, there were many local committees
and governing boards, prominent in the life of Dutch cities, which followed the
praiseworthy custom of having their group-portraits painted for the board-rooms
and meeting-places of their worshipful companies. An artist whose manner appealed
to this public could therefore hope for a reasonably steady income. Once his manner
ceased to be fashionable, however, he might face ruin.
The first outstanding master of free Holland, Frans Hals (i58o?-i666), was
forced to lead such a precarious existence. Hals belonged to the same generation as
did Rubens. His parents had left the southern Netherlands because they were
Protestants and had settled in the prosperous Dutch city of Haarlem. We know
little about his life except that he frequently owed money to his baker or shoemaker.
In his old age — he lived to be over eighty — he was granted a small pittance by the
municipal almshouse whose board of governors he painted.
Fig. 260 shows one of the magnificent portraits that brought so little money to
Hals and his family. Compared to earlier portraits, it looks almost like a snapshot.
We seem to know this Pieter van der Broecke, a true merchant-adventurer of
the seventeenth century. Let us think back to Holbein’s painting of the Duke of
Norfolk (p. 277, Fig. 233) painted less than a century earlier, or even to the portraits
The Mirror of Nature 3 1 1
which Rubens, Vandyke or Velazquez
painted at that time in Catholic Europe.
For all their liveliness and truth to nature
one felt that the painters had carefully
arranged the sitter’s pose so as to convey
the idea of dignified aristocratic breeding.
The portraits of Hals give us the impres-
sion that the painter has ‘caught ’ his sitter
at a characteristic moment and fixed it for
ever on to the canvas. It is difficult for us
to imagine how bold and unconventional
these paintings must have looked to the
public. The very way in which Hals
handled paint and brush suggests that
he quickly seized a fleeting impression.
Earlier portraits are painted with visible
patience — we sometimes feel that the sub-
ject must have sat still for many a session
while the painter carefully recorded detail upon detail. Hals never allowed his model
to get tired or stale. We seem to witness his quick and deft handling of the brush
through which he conjures up the image of tousled hair or of a crumpled sleeve
with a few touches of light and dark paint. Of course, the impression that Hals
gives us, the impression of a casual glimpse of the sitter in a characteristic move-
ment and mood, could never have been achieved without a very calculated effort.
What looks at first like a happy-go-lucky approach is really the result of a carefully
thought-out effect. Though the portrait is not symmetrical as earlier portraits often
were, it is not lopsided. Like other masters of the Baroque period, Hals knew how
to attain the impression of balance without appearing to follow any rule.
The painters of Protestant Holland who had no inclination or talent for portrait
painting had to give up the idea of relying chiefly on commissions. Unlike the
masters of the Middle Ages and of the Renaissance, they had to paint their picture
first, and then try to find a buyer. We are now so used to this state of affairs, we take
it so much for granted that an artist is a man painting away in his studio, which is
packed full of pictures he is desperately trying to sell, that we can hardly imagine
the change this position brought about. In one respect, artists may possibly have
been glad to be rid of patrons who interfered with their work and who may some-
times have bullied them. But this freedom was dearly bought. For, instead of a
single patron, the artist had now to cope with an even more tyrannical master — the
buying public. He had either to go to the market place and to public fairs, there to
peddle his wares, or to rely on middlemen, picture dealers who relieved him of this
260. frans HALS: Pieter van der Broecke.
1633. London, Kenwood, Iveagh Bequest
261. simon vlieger: Mouth of a River.
About 1640. London, National Gallery
312 The Mirror of Nature
burden but who wanted to buy as cheaply
as possible in order to be able to sell at a
profit. Moreover, competition was very
stiff; there were many artists in each Dutch
town exhibiting their paintings on the
stalls, and the only chance for the minor
masters to make a reputation lay in special-
izing in one particular branch or genre of
painting. Then, as now, the public liked
to know what it was getting. Once a
painter had made a name as a master of
battle-pieces, it was battle-pieces he would
be most likely to sell. If he had had success with landscapes in the moonlight, it
might be safer to stick to that, and to paint more landscapes in the moonlight. Thus
it came about that the trend towards specialization which had begun in the northern
countries in the sixteenth century (p. 279) was carried to even greater extremes in
the seventeenth. Some of the weaker painters became content to turn out the same
kind of picture over and over again. It is true that in doing so they sometimes
carried their trade to a pitch of perfection which commands our admiration. These
specialists were real specialists. The painters of fish knew how to render the silvery
hue of wet scales with a virtuosity which puts many a more universal master to
shame; and the painters of seascapes not only became proficient in the painting of
waves and clouds, but were such experts in the accurate portraying of ships and
their tackle that their paintings are still considered valuable historical documents
of the period of England’s and Holland’s naval expansion. Fig. 261 shows a painting
by one of the oldest of these specialists in seascapes, Simon Vlieger (1601-53). It
shows how these Dutch artists could convey the atmosphere of the sea by wonder-
fully simple and unpretentious means.
These Dutchmen were the first in the
history of art to discover the beauty of the
sky. They needed nothing dramatic or
striking to make their pictures interesting.
They simply represented a piece of the
world as it appeared to them, and dis-
covered that it could make just as satisfying
a picture as any illustration of a heroic
tale or a comic theme.
One of the earliest of these discoverers
was Jan van Goyen (1596-1656), from 2fi2 jan van GOYEn:AWirtdmiUbyaRiver .
The Hague, who was roughly of the same 1642. London, National Gallery
The Mirror of Nature 313
generation as the landscape painter Claude Lorrain (p. 295, Fig. 248). It is interest-
ing to compare one of the famous landscapes of Claude, a nostalgic vision of a land
of serene beauty, with the simple aind straightforward painting by Jan van Goyen
(Fig. 262). The differences are too obvious to need labouring. Instead of lofty
temples, the Dutchman paints a homely windmill; instead of alluring glades, a
featureless stretch of his native land. But Goyen knows how to transform the com-
monplace scene into a vision of restful beauty. He transfigures the familiar motifs,
and leads our eyes into the hazy distance, so that we feel as if we were ourselves
s tandin g at a point of vantage and looking into the light of the evening. We saw how
the inventions of Claude so captured the imagination of his admirers in England that
they tried to transform the actual scenery of their native land, and make it conform
to the creations of the painter. A landscape or a garden which made them think of
Claude, they called ‘picturesque’, like a picture. We have since become used to
applying this word not only to ruined castles and sunsets, but also to such simple
things as sailing boats and windmills. When we come to consider it, we do so be-
cause such motifs remind us of pictures not by Claude, but by masters like Vlieger
or Goyen. It is they who have taught us to see the ‘picturesque’ in a simple scene.
Many a rambler in the countryside who delights in what he sees may, without know-
ing it, owe his joy to those humble masters who first opened our eyes to unpreten-
tious natural beauty.
The greatest painter of Holland, and one of the greatest painters who ever lived,
was Rembrandt Van Rijn (1606-69), who was a generation younger than Frans Hals
and Rubens, and seven years younger than Vandyke and Velazquez. Rembrandt
did not write down his observations as Leonardo and Diirer did; he was no admired
genius as Michelangelo was, whose sayings were handed down to posterity; he was
no diplomatic letter-writer like Rubens who exchanged ideas with the leading
scholars of his age. Yet we feel that we know Rembrandt perhaps more intimately
than any of these great masters, because he left us an amazing record of his life, a
series of self-portraits ranging from the time of his youth, when he was a successful
and even fashionable master, to his lonely old age when his face reflected the tragedy
of bankruptcy and the unbroken will of a truly great man. These portraits combine
into a unique autobiography.
Rembrandt was born in 1606, the son of a well-to-do miller in the University
town of Leyden. He matriculated at the University, but soon abandoned his studies
to become a painter. Some of his earliest works were greatly praised by contem-
porary scholars, and at the age of twenty-five Rembrandt left Leyden for the teeming
commercial centre of Amsterdam. There he made a rapid career as a portrait
painter, married a wealthy girl, bought a house, collected works of art and curios,
and worked incessantly. When his first wife died, in 1 642, she left him a considerable
fortune, but Rembrandt’s popularity with the public declined, he got into debt, and
314 The Mirror of Nature
263. Rembrandt: Self -Portrait. About 1666. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum
fourteen years later his creditors sold his house and put his collection up for auction.
Only the help of his second wife and his son saved him from utter ruin. They made
an arrangement by which he was formally an employee of their art-dealing firm,
and, as such, he painted his last great masterpieces. But these faithful companions
died before him, and when his life came to an end in 1669, he left no other property
than some old clothes and his painting utensils. Fig. 263 shows us Rembrandt’s
face during the last years of his life. It was not a beautiful face, and Rembrandt
certainly never tried to conceal its ugliness. He observed himself in a mirror with
complete sincerity. It is because of this sincerity that we soon forget to ask about
The Mirror of Nature 315
beauty or looks. This is the face of a real human being. There is no trace of a pose,
no trace of vanity, just the penetrating gaze of a painter who scrutinizes his own
features, ever ready to learn more and more about the secrets of the human face.
Other portraits by great masters may look alive, they may even reveal the character
of their sitter through a characteristic expression or a striking attitude. Creations
such as the ‘Mona Lisa’ (p. 218, Fig. 187), Titian’s ‘Young Englishman’ (p. 245,
Fig. 204), or Hillyarde’s ‘Courtier’ (p. 278, Fig. 234) are like great characters in
fiction, or parts played by actors on the stage. They are convincing and impressive,
but we feel that they can only represent one side of a complex human being. Not
even Mona Lisa can always have smiled. But in Rembrandt’s portraits (Fig. 265)
we feel face to face with real human beings with all their tragic failings and all
their sufferings. His keen and steady eyes seem to look straight into the human heart.
I realize that such an expression may sound sentimental, but I know no other way
of describing the almost uncanny knowledge Rembrandt appears to have had of
human feelings and human reactions. Like Shakespeare, he seems to have been
able to get into the skin of all types of men, and to know how they would behave in
any given situation. It is that gift that makes Rembrandt’s illustrations of biblical
stories so different from anything that had been done before. As a devout Protestant,
Rembrandt must have read the Bible again and again. He entered into the spirit
264. rembrandt: The Farable of the Merciless Servant . Drawing. About 1655.
Paris, Louvre, Eonnat Bequest
3i6
The Mirror of Nature
265. rembrandt: Jan Six , an Amsterdam Patrician. Painted in 1654.
Amsterdam, Six Collection
of its episodes, and attempted to visualize exactly what the situation must have been
like, and how people would have moved and borne themselves at such a moment.
Fig. 264 shows a drawing in which Rembrandt illustrated the parable of the merciless
servant (Matthew xviii. 21-35). There is no need to explain the drawing. It explains
itself. We see the Lord on the day of reckoning, with his steward looking up the
servant’s debts in a big ledger. We see from the way the servant stands, his head
lowered, his hand fumbling deep in his pocket, that he is unable to pay. The
relationship of these three people to each other, the busy steward, the Hi gnifipH
Lord and the guilty servant, is expressed with a few strokes of the pen.
The Mirror of Nature 317
Rembrandt needs hardly any gestures or movements to express the inner meaning
of a scene. He is never theatrical. Fig. 269 shows one of the paintings in which he
visualized another incident from the Bible which had hardly ever been illustrated
before — the reconciliation between King David and his wicked son Absalom. When
Rembrandt was reading the Old Testament, and tried to see the kings and patriarchs
of the Holy Land in his mind’s eye, he thought of the Orientals he had seen in the
busy port of Amsterdam. That is why he dressed David like an Indian or Turk
with a big turban, and gave Absalom a curved Oriental sword. His painter’s eye was
attracted by the splendour of these costumes, and by the chance they gave him of
showing the play of light on the precious fabric, and the sparkle of gold and
jewellery. We can see that Rembrandt was as great a master in conjuring up the
effects of these shining textures as Rubens or Velazquez. Rembrandt used less bright
colour than either of them. The first impression of many of his paintings is that
of a rather dark brown. But these dark tones give even more power and force to
the contrast of a few bright and brilliant colours. The result is that the light on
some of Rembrandt’s pictures looks almost dazzling. But Rembrandt never used
these magic effects of light and shade for their own sakes. They always served
to enhance the drama of the scene. What could be more moving than the gesture of
the young prince in his proud array, burying his face on his father’s breast, or King
David in his quiet and sorrowful acceptance of his son’s submission ? Though we
do not see Absalom’s face, we feel what he must feel.
Like Diirer before him, Rembrandt was great not only as a painter but also
as a graphic artist. The technique he used was no longer that of woodcuts or
266. rembranot: Christ preaching. Etching. About 1652
318 The Mirror of Nature
copper-engraving (p. 204), but a method which allowed him to work more freely
and more quickly than was possible with the burin. This technique is called etching.
Its principle is quite simple. Instead of laboriously scratching the surface of the cop-
per-plate, the artist covers the plate with wax and draws on it with a needle.
Wherever his needle goes, the wax is removed and the copper laid bare. All he has to
do afterwards is to put his plate into an acid which bites into the copper where the
wax has gone, and thus transfer the drawing on to the copper-plate. The plate can
then be printed in the same way as an engraving. The only means of telling an etch-
ing from an engraving is by judging the character of the lines. There is a visible
difference between the laborious and slow work of the burin and the free and easy
play of the etcher’s needle. Fig. 266 shows one of Rembrandt’s etchings — another
biblical scene. Christ is preaching, and the poor and humble have gathered round
Him to listen. This time Rembrandt has turned to his own city for models. He lived
for a long time in the Jewish quarter of Amsterdam, and he studied the appearance
and dresses of the Jews so as to introduce them into his sacred stories. Here they
stand and sit, huddled together, some listening, enraptured, others pondering the
words of Jesus, some, like the fat man behind, perhaps scandalized by Christ’s
attack on the Pharisees. People who are used to the beautiful figures of Italian art
are sometimes shocked when they first see Rembrandt’s pictures because he seems
to care nothing for beauty, and not even to shrink from outright ugliness. That is
true, in a sense. Like other artists of his time, Rembrandt had absorbed the message
of Caravaggio, whose work he came to know through Dutchmen who had fallen
under his influence. Like Caravaggio, he valued truth and sincerity above harmony
and beauty. Christ had preached to the poor, the hungry and the sad, and poverty,
hunger and tears are not beautiful. Of course much depends on what we agree to
call beauty. A child often finds the kind, wrinkled face of his grandmother more
beautiful than the regular features of a film star, and why should he not ? In the
same way, one might say that the haggard old man in the right-hand corner of the
etching, cowering, one hand before his face, and looking up, completely absorbed,
is one of the most beautiful figures ever drawn. But perhaps it is really not very
important what words we use to express our admiration.
Rembrandt’s unconventional approach sometimes makes us forget how much
artistic wisdom and skill he uses in the arrangement of his groups. Nothing could
be more carefully balanced than the crowd forming a circle round Jesus, and yet
standing at a respectful distance. In this art of distributing a mass of people, in
apparently casual and yet perfectly harmonious groups, Rembrandt owed much
to the tradition of Italian art which he by no means despised. Nothing would be
farther from the truth than to imagine that this great master was a lonely rebel
whose greatness went unrecognized by contemporary Europe. It is true that his
popularity as a portrait painter decreased as his art became more profound and
The Mirror of Nature 319
uncompromising. But whatever the reasons for his personal tragedy and bank-
ruptcy, his fame as an artist stood very high. The real tragedy, then as now, is
that fame alone does not suffice to make a livelihood.
The figure of Rembrandt is so important in all branches of Dutch art that no
other painter of the period can bear comparison with him. That is not to say,
however, that there were not many masters in the Protestant Netherlands who
deserve to be studied and enjoyed in their own right. Many of them followed the
tradition of northern art in reproducing the life of the people in gay and unsophisti-
cated paintings. We remember that this tradition reaches back to such examples
of medieval miniatures as p. 153, Fig. 140 and p. 198, Fig. 173. We remember how
it was taken up by Brueghel (p. 280, Fig. 235), who displayed his skill as a painter
and his knowledge of human nature in humorous scenes from the lives of peasants.
The seventeenth-century artist who brought this vein to perfection was Jan Steen
(1626-79), Jan van Goyen’s son-in-law. Like many other artists of his time, Steen
could not support himself with his brush, and he kept an inn to earn money. One
might almost imagine that he enjoyed this sideline, because it gave him an oppor-
tunity of watching the people in their revellings, and of adding to his store of comic
types. Fig. 267 shows a gay scene from the life of the people — a christening feast. We
look into a comfortable room with a recess for the bed in which the mother lies,
while friends and relations crowd round the father who holds the baby. It is well
267. jan steen: The Christening Feast. 1664.
London, Wallace Collection
320 The Mirror of Nature
worth looking at these various types and their forms of merrymaking, but when we
have examined all the detail we should not forget to admire the skill with which the
artist has blended the various incidents into a picture. The figure in the foreground,
seen from behind, is a wonderful piece of painting whose gay colours have a warmth
and mellowness one does not easily forget when one has seen the original.
One often associates Dutch seventeenth-century art with this mood of gaiety and
good living we find in Jan Steen’s pictures, but there are other artists in Holland
who represent a very different mood, one which comes much nearer to the spirit
of Rembrandt. The outstanding example is another ‘specialist’, the landscape
painter Jacob van Ruisdael (1628 ?-82). Ruisdael was about the same age as Jan Steen
268. JACOB VAN RUISDAEL: Wooded landscape. About 1655. Oxford, Worcester College
which means that he belonged to the second generation of great Dutch painters.
When he grew up the works of Jan van Goyen and even of Rembrandt were already
famous and were bound to influence his taste and choice of themes. Dining the first
half of his life he lived in the beautiful town of Haarlem, which is separated from
the sea by a range of wooded dunes. He loved to study the effect of light and shade
on the gnarly weatherbeaten trees of these tracts and specialized more and more in
picturesque forest scenes (Fig. 268). He became a master in the painting of dark
and sombre clouds, of evening light when the shadows grow, of ruined castles and
rushing brooks; in short it was he who discovered the poetry of the northern land-
scape much as Gaude had discovered the poetry of Italian scenery. Perhaps no
269. Rembrandt: The Reconciliation of David and Absalom . 1642. Leningrad, Hermitage
270. vermher van delft: The Cook. Painted about 1660. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum
The Mirror of Nature 323
artist before him had contrived to express so much of his own feelings and moods
through their reflection in nature.
If I have called this chapter ‘The Mirror of Nature’, I did not only want to say
that Dutch art had learned to reproduce nature as faithfully as a mirror. Neither art
nor nature are ever as smooth and cold as a glass. Nature reflected in art always
reflects the artist’s own mind, his predilections, his enjoyments and therefore his
moods. It is this fact above all which renders the most ‘specialized’ branch of Dutch
painting so interesting, the branch of still life painting. These still lifes usually show
beautiful vessels filled with wine and appetizing fruit, or other dainties invitingly
arranged on lovely china. These were pictures which would go well into a dining-
room and would be sure to find a buyer. But they are more than mere reminders
of the joys of the table. In such still lifes, artists could freely pick on any objects they
liked to paint, and arrange them on the table to suit their fancy. Thus they became
a wonderful field of experiment for the painters’ special problems. Willem Kalf
(1622-93), for instance, liked to study the way in which light is reflected and broken
by coloured glass. He studied the contrasts and harmonies of colours and textures,
and tried to achieve ever-new harmonies between rich Persian carpets, bright blue
china and brilliantly coloured fruit (Fig. 271). Without knowing it themselves,
these specialists began to demonstrate that the subject of a painting is much less
important than might have been thought. Just as trivial words may provide the text
for a beautiful song, so trivial objects can make a perfect picture.
This may seem a strange remark to make after the stress I have just laid on the
subject-matter of Rembrandt’s painting. But actually I do not think that there is a
contradiction. A composer who sets to music not a trivial text but a great poem
wants us to understand the poem, so that
we may appreciate his musical interpre-
tation. In the same way, a painter painting
a biblical scene wants us to understand
the scene to appreciate his conception.
But just as there is great music without
words, so there is great painting without
an important subject-matter. It was this
discovery towards which the seventeenth-
century artists had been groping when
they discovered the sheer beauty of the
visible world. And the Dutch specialists
who spent their lives painting the same
kind of subject-matter ended by proving
that the subject-matter was of secondary
importance.
271. willem kalf: Still Life . About 1660.
Berlin, Kaiscr-Friedrich Museum
X
324 The Mirror of Nature
The greatest of these masters was born a generation after Rembrandt. He was
Jan Vermeer van Delft (1632-75). Vermeer seems to have been a slow and a careful
worker. He did not paint very many pictures in his life. Few of them represent any
important scenes. Most of them show simple figures standing in a room of a
typically Dutch house. Some show nothing but a single figure engaged in a simple
task, such as a woman pouring out milk (Fig. 270). With Vermeer genre painting
has lost the last trace of humorous illustration. His paintings are really still lifes with
human beings. It is hard to argue the reasons that make such a simple and unassum-
ing picture one of the greatest masterpieces of all time. But few who have been lucky
enough to see the original will disagree with me that it is something of a miracle. One
of its miraculous features can perhaps be described, though hardly explained. It is
the way in which Vermeer achieves complete and painstaking precision in the ren-
dering of textures, colours and forms without the picture ever looking laboured or
harsh. Like a photographer who deliberately softens the strong contrasts of the pic-
ture without blurring the forms, Vermeer mellowed the outlines and yet retained the
effect of solidity and firmness. It is this strange and unique combination of mellow-
ness and precision which makes his best paintings so unforgettable. They make us
see the quiet beauty of a simple scene with fresh eyes and give us an idea of what the
artist felt when he watched the light flooding through the window and heightening
the colour of a piece of cloth.
272. The poor Painter shivering in his Garret.
Drawing by pieter bloot. About 1640.
London, British Museum
CHAPTER 21 • POWER AND GLORY: I
Italy, Later Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
273. A Church of the Roman ‘ High Baroque' : Sta Agnese in Piazza Navona , Rome.
Designed by borromini and rainaldi in 1653
W E remember the beginning of the Baroque manner of building in such
works of late sixteenth-century art as della Porta’s church of the Jesuit
Order (p. 287, Fig. 243). Porta disregarded the so-called rules of
classical architecture for the sake of greater variety and more imposing effects. It is
in the nature of things that once art has taken this road it must keep to it. If variety
and striking effects are considered important, each subsequent artist has to produce
more complex decorations and more astounding ideas so as to remain impressive.
During the first half of the seventeenth century, this process of piling up more
and more dazzling new ideas for buildings and their decorations had gone on
in Italy, and by the middle of the seventeenth century the style we call Baroque
was fully developed.
Fig. 273 shows a typical Baroque church built by the famous architect Francesco
Borromini (1599-1667) and his assistants. It is easy to see that even the forms which
Borromini applied are really Renaissance forms. Like della Porta, he used the form
of a temple front to frame the central entrance and, like him, he doubled the
pilasters on the side to gain a richer effect. But by comparison with Borromini’s
326 Power and Glory: Italy
fa£ade, della Porta’s looks almost severe and restrained. Borrom ; ni was no longer
content with decorating a wall with the orders taken from classical architecture. He
composed his church by a grouping of different forms — the vast cupola, the flanking
towers and the facade. And this fa?ade is curved as if it had been modelled in clay.
If we look at the detail we find even more surprising effects. The first storey of the
towers is square, but the second is round, and the relation between the two storeys
is brought about by a strangely broken entablature which would have horrified every
orthodox teacher of architecture, but which does the job assigned to it extremely
well. The frames of the doors flanking the main porch are even more astonishing.
The way in which the pediment over the entrance is made to frame an oval window
has no parallel in any earlier building. The scrolls and curves of the Baroque style
had come to dominate both the general lay-out and the decorative details. It has
been said of Baroque buildings like those of Borromini that they are over-ornate and
theatrical. Borromini himself would hardly have understood this charge. He wanted
a church to look festive and to be a building full of splendour and movement. If
it is the aim of the theatre to delight us with a vision of a fairy world of light and
pageantry, why should not the artist designing a church have a right to give us an
idea of even greater pomp and glory to remind us of Heaven ?
When we enter these churches we understand even better how the pomp and dis-
play of precious stones, of gold and stucco, were used deliberately to conjure up a
vision of heavenly glory much more concrete than the medieval cathedrals. Fig.
274 shows the interior of Borromini’s church. To those of us who are used to
the church interiors of northern countries, this dazzling pageantry may well look
too worldly for our taste. But the Catholic Church of the period thought differently.
The more the Protestants preached against outward show in the churches, the
more eager did the Roman Church become to enlist the power of the artist. Thus
the Reformation and the whole vexed issue of images and their worship which
had influenced the course of art so often in the past, also had an indirect effect
on the development of Baroque. The Catholic world had discovered that art could
serve religion in ways that went beyond the simple task assigned to it in the
early Middle Ages — the task of teaching the Doctrine to people who could notread.
It could help to persuade and convert those who had, perhaps, read too much.
Architects, painters and sculptors were called upon to transform churches into
grand show-pieces whose splendour and vision nearly swept you off your feet. It
is not so much the details that matter in these interiors as the general effect of the
whole. We cannot hope to understand them, or to judge them correctly, unless we
visualize them as the framework for the splendid ritual of the Roman Church, unless
we have seen them during High Mass when the candles are alight on the altar, when
the smell of incense fills the nave, and when the sound of the organ and the choir
transports us into a different world.
274- Interior of Sta Agnese in Piazza Navona (see Fig. 273). Completed about 1663
This supreme art of theatrical decoration had mainly been developed by one
artist, Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Bernini belonged to the same generation as
Borromini. He was one year older than Vandyke and Velazquez, and eight years
older than Rembrandt. Like these masters, he was a consummate portraitist.
Fig. 275 shows his portrait bust of a young woman which has all the freshness and
unconventionality of Bernini’s best work. When I saw it last in the museum in
Florence, a ray of sunlight was playing on the bust and the whole figure seemed to
328
Power and Glory: Italy
breathe and come to life. Bernini has
caught a transient expression which we
are sure must have been most characteris-
tic of his sitter. In the rendering of facial
expression, Bernini was perhaps unsur-
passed. He used it, as Rembrandt used
his profound knowledge of human be-
haviour, to give visual form to his religious
experience.
Fig. 276 shows an altar of Bernini’s for
a side chapel in a small Roman church. It
is dedicated to the Spanish saint Theresa,
a nun of the sixteenth century who had
described her mystic visions in a famous
book. In it she tells of a moment of heaven-
ly rapture, when an angel of the Lord
pierced her heart with a golden flaming
arrow, filling her with pain and yet with
immeasurable bliss. It is this vision that
Bernini has dared to represent. We see the saint carried Heavenwards on a cloud,
towards streams of light which pour down from above in the form of golden rays.
We see the angel gently approaching her, and the saint swooning in ecstasy. The
group is so placed that it seems to hover without support in the magnificent frame
provided by the altar, and to receive its light from an invisible window above. A
northern visitor may be inclined, at first, to find the whole arrangement too reminis-
cent of stage effects, and the group over-emotional. This, of course, is a matter of
taste and upbringing about which it is useless to argue. But if we grant that a work
of religious art like Bernini’s altar may legitimately be used to arouse the feelings
of fervid exultation and mystic transport at which the artists of the Baroque were
aiming, we must admit that Bernini has achieved this aim in a masterly fashion.
He has deliberately cast aside all restraint, and carried us to a pitch of emotion
which artists had so far shunned. If we compare the face of his swooning saint
with any work done in previous centuries, we find that he achieved an intensity
of facial expression which until then was never attempted in art. Looking from
Fig. 277 to the head of Laocoon (p. 75, Fig. 68), or of Michelangelo’s ‘Dying
Slave’ (p. 228, Fig. 192), we realize the difference. Even Bernini’s handling of
draperies was at the time completely new. Instead of letting them fall in dig-
nified folds in the approved classical manner, he made them writhe and whirl
to add to the effect of excitement and movement. In all these effects he was soon
imitated all over Europe.
Power and Glory: Italy 329
276. bernini: The Vision of St. Theresa. Altar in Sta Maria della Vittoria, Rome.
Erected between 1644 and 1647
If it is true of sculptures like Bernini’s ‘St. Theresa’ that they can only be judged
in the setting for which they were made, the same applies even more to the painted
decorations of Baroque churches. Fig. 278 shows the decoration of the ceiling of the
Jesuit church in Rome by a painter of Bernini’s following, Giovanni Battista Gaulli
277 • bernini: St. Theresa. Detail of Fig. 276
(1639-1709). The artist wants to give us the illusion that the vault of the church has
opened, and that we look straight into the glories of Heaven. Correggio before him
had the idea of painting the heavens on the ceiling (p. 247, Fig. 207), but Gaulli’s
effects are incomparably more theatrical. The theme is the worship of the Holy
Name of Jesus, which is inscribed in radiant letters in the centre of his church. It is
surrounded by infinite multitudes of cherubs, angels, and saints, each gazing in
rapture into the light, while whole legions of demons or fallen angels are driven out
of the heavenly regions, with gestures of despair. The crowded scene seems to burst
the frame of the ceiling, which brims over with clouds carrying saints and sinners
right down into the church. In letting the picture thus break the frame the artist
wants to confuse and overwhelm us, so that we no longer know what is real and
what illusion. A painting like this has no meaning outside the place for which it
was made. Perhaps it is no coincidence, therefore, that, after the development of the
Power and Glory: Italy
331
278. GAULLi: The Worship of the Holy Name of Jesus. Ceiling of the Jesuit church
II Gesu in Rome. Between 1670 and 1683
full Baroque style in which all artists collaborated in the achievement of one effect,
painting and sculpture as independent arts declined in Italy and throughout
Catholic Europe.
In the eighteenth century Italian artists were mainly superb internal decorators
who were famous throughout Europe for their skill in stucco work and their great
frescoes which could transform any hall of a castle or monastery into a setting for a
pageantry. One of the most famous of these masters was the Venetian Giovanni
Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770), who worked not only in Italy but also in Germany
332
Power and Glory: Italy
279. giovanni battista tiepolo: Cleopatra's Banquet. Fresco in the
Palazzo Labia, Venice. 1757
and Spain. Fig. 279 shows part of his decoration of a Venetian palace, painted in
1757. It represents a subject which gave Tiepolo every opportunity to display gay
colours and sumptuous costumes : The Banquet of Cleopatra. The story goes that
Mark Antony gave a feast in honour of the Eygptian queen which was to be the
nonplus ultra of luxury. The most costly dishes followed each other in sheer endless
succession. The queen was not impressed. She wagered her proud host that she
would produce a dish much more costly than anything he had offered yet — she took
Power and Glory: Italy
333
280. guardi: View of S. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice. About 1770.
London, Wallace Collection
a famous pearl from her earring, dissolved it in vinegar and drank the brew. On
Tiepolo’s fresco we see her showing Mark Antony the pearl while a black servant
offers her a glass.
Frescoes like these must have been fun to paint and they are a pleasure to look at.
And yet we may feel that these fireworks are of less permanent value than the more
sober creations of earlier periods. The great age of Italian art was ending.
Only in one specialized branch did Italian art create new ideas in the early
eighteenth century. That was, characteristically enough, the painting and engraving
of views. The travellers who came to Italy from all over Europe to admire the
glories of her past greatness often wanted to take souvenirs with them. In Venice,
in particular, whose scenery is so fascinating to the artist, there developed a school
of painters who catered for this demand. Fig. 280 shows a view of Venice by one
of these painters, Francesco Guardi (1712-93). Like Tiepolo’s fresco, it shows that
Venetian art had not lost its sense of pageantry, of light and of colour. It is interest-
ing to compare Guardi’s views of the Venetian lagoon with the sober and faithful
seascapes of Simon Vlieger (p. 312, Fig. 261) painted a century earlier. We realize
that the spirit of Baroque, the taste for movement and bold effects, can express
itself even in a simple view of a city. Guardi has completely mastered the effects
that had been studied by seventeenth-century painters. He has learned that once
we are given the general impression of a scene, we are quite ready to supply and
334 Power and Glory: Italy
supplement the details ourselves. If we look closely at his gondoliers we discover,
to our surprise, that they are made up simply of a few deftly placed coloured
patches — yet if we step back the illusion becomes completely effective. The tradi-
tion of Baroque discoveries which lived in these late fruits of Italian art was to gain
new importance in subsequent periods.
3SGS$J
w.i
Rome. Caricature
tina
CHAPTER 22 • POWER AND GLORY: II
France , Germany and Austria
Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries
282. The Baroque Castle: Versailles , garden front. Built by Louis levau and
J. HARDOUIN MANSARD from 1655 to 1682
I T was not only the Roman Church that had discovered the power of art to
impress and overwhelm. The kings and princes of seventeenth-century Europe
were equally anxious to display their might and thus to increase their hold on
the minds of the people. They, too, wanted to appear as beings of a different kind,
lifted by Divine right above the common run of men. This applies particularly to
the most powerful ruler of the latter part of the seventeenth century, Louis XIV
of France, in whose political programme the display and splendour of royalty
was deliberately used. It is surely no accident that Louis XIV invited Lorenzo
Bernini to Paris to help with the designing of his palace. This grandiose project
never materialized, but another of Louis XIV’s palaces became the very symbol
of his immense power. This was the Palace of Versailles, which was built round
about 1660-80. Versailles is so huge that no photograph can give an adequate idea
of its appearance. Fig. 283 gives an aerial view which may convey some idea of its
size and lay-out. There are no fewer than 123 windows looking towards the park in
each storey. The park itself, with its clipped trees, terraces and ponds, extends over
miles of country.
It is in its immensity rather than in its decorative detail that Versailles is Baroque
(Fig. 282). Its architects were mainly intent on grouping the enormous masses of
the building into clearly distinct wings, and giving each wing the appearance of
nobility and gradeur. They accentuated the middle of the main storey by a row of
Ionic columns carrying an entablature with rows of statues on top, and flanked this
336 Power and Glory: the Catholic North
effective centre-piece with decorations of a similar kind. With a simple combination
of pure Renaissance forms, they would hardly have succeeded in breaking the
monotony of so vast a facade, but with the help of statues, urns and trophies they
produced a certain amount of variety. It is in buildings like these, therefore, that
one can best appreciate the true function and purpose of Baroque forms. Had the
designers of Versailles been a little more daring than they were, and used more
unorthodox means of articulating and grouping the enormous building, they might
have been even more successful.
It was only in the next generation that this lesson was completely absorbed by
the architects of the period. For the Roman churches and French castles of the
Baroque style fired the imagination of the age. Every minor princeling in southern
283. Versailles from the air. (See Fig. 282)
Germany wanted to have his Versailles; every small monastery in Austria or in
Spain wanted to compete with the impressive splendour of Bernini’s designs. The
period round about 1700 is one of the greatest periods of architecture; and not of
architecture alone. These castles and churches were not simply planned as buildings
— all the arts had to contribute to the effect of a fantastic and artificial world. Whole
towns were used like stage settings, stretches of country transformed into gardens,
brooks into cascades. Artists were given free rein to plan to their hearts’ content,
and to translate their most unlikely visions into stone and gilt stucco. Often the
money ran out before their plans became reality, but what was completed of this
outburst of extravagant creation transformed the face of many a town and landscape
of Catholic Europe. It was particularly in Austria, Bohemia and southern Germany
that the ideas of the Italian and French Baroque were fused into the boldest and
most consistent style. Fig. 284 shows the castle which the Austrian architect,
Power and Glory: the Catholic North
337
284. The Belvedere in Vienna. Designed by Hii.nhBRANDT between 1720 and 1724
Lucas von Hildebrandt (1668-1745), built in Vienna for Marlborough’s ally, Prince
Eugene of Savoy. The castle stands on a hill, and seems to hover lighdy over a
terraced garden with fountains and clipped hedges. Hildebrandt has grouped it
clearly into seven different parts, reminiscent of garden pavilions ; a five-windowed
285. The Entrance Hall and Staircase of the Vienna Belvedere. Designed by hildebrandt. I 7 2 4 *
After an eighteenth-century engraving
338
Power and Glory: the Catholic North
286. The staircase of Pommersfelden {Germany). Designed
by HILDEBRANDT 1713-14, built by DIETZENHOFER
centre-piece bulging forward, flanked by two wings of only slightly lesser height,
and this group in turn flanked by a lower part and four turret-like corner pavilions
which frame the whole building. The centre pavilion and the corner pieces are the
most richly decorated parts, and the building forms an intricate pattern which is
nevertheless completely clear and lucid in its outline. This lucidity is not at all dis-
turbed by the freakish and grotesque ornament that Hildebrandt employed in the
details of the decoration, the pilasters tapering off downwards, the broken and
scrolly pediments over the windows, and the statues and trophies lining the roof.
It is only when we enter the building that we feel the full impact of this fantastic
style of decoration. Fig. 285 shows the entrance hall of Prince Eugene’s palace, and
Fig. 286 a staircase of a German castle designed by Hildebrandt. We cannot do
justice to these interiors unless we visualize them in use — on a day when the owner
was giving a feast or holding a reception, when the lamps were lit and men and
women in the gay and stately fashions of the time arrived to mount these stairs. At
such a moment, the contrast between the dark and unlit streets of the time, reeking
Power and Glory: the Catholic North
339
287. The Monastery of Melk on the Danube. Designed by
PRANDTAUER in 1702
of dirt and squalor, and the radiant fairy world of the nobleman’s dwelling must
have been overwhelming.
The buildings of the Church made use of similar striking effects. Fig. 287 shows
the Austrian monastery of Melk, on the Danube. As one comes down this river, the
monastery, with its cupola and its strangely shaped towers, stands on the hill like
some unreal apparition. It was built by a local builder called Jakob Prandtauer
(died 1726) and decorated by some of the Italian travelling virtuosi who were ever
ready with new ideas and designs from the vast store of Baroque patterns. How
well these humble artists had learnt the difficult art of grouping and organizing
a building to give the appearance of stateliness without monotony! They were
also careful to graduate the decoration, and to use the more extravagant forms
sparingly, but all the more effectively, in the parts of the building they wanted to
throw into relief.
In the interior, however, they cast off all restraint. Even Bernini or Borromini in
their most exuberant moods would never have gone quite so far. Once more we
must imagine what it meant for a simple Austrian peasant to leave his farmhouse
Y
340 Power and Glory: the Catholic North
288. Interior of the Church of Melk Monastery. Completed about 1738, after designs of
PRANDTAUER, BEDUZZI and MUNGGENAST
and enter this strange wonderland. There are clouds everywhere, with angels
making music and gesticulating in the bliss of Paradise. Some have settled on the
pulpit, others are balancing on the scrolls of the organ gallery ; everything seems to
move and dance — even the walls cannot stand still, but seem to sway to and fro in
the rhythm of jubilation. Nothing is ‘natural’ or ‘normal’ in such a church — it is
not meant to be. It is intended to give us a foretaste of the glory of Paradise.
Perhaps it is not everybody’s idea of Paradise, but when you are in the midst of it
all it envelops you and stops all questionings. You feel you are in a world where
our rules and standards simply do not apply.
One can understand that north of the Alps, no less than in Italy, the individual
arts were swept into this orgy of decoration and lost much of their independent
importance. There were, of course, painters and sculptors of distinction in the period
round about 1700, but perhaps there was only one master whose art compares with
the great leading painters of the first half of the seventeenth century. This master
was Antoine Watteau (1684-1721). Watteau came from Belgium, but settled in Paris
where he died at the age of thirty-seven. He, too, designed interior decorations for
the castles of the nobility, to provide the appropriate background for the festivals
and pageantries of court society. But it would seem as if the actual festivities had not
satisfied the imagination of the artist. He began to paint his own visions of a fife
divorced from all hardship and triviality, a dream-life of gay picnics in fairy parks
where it never rains, of musical parties where all ladies are beautiful and all lovers
Power and Glory: the Catholic North
341
289. watteau: Fete m a Park. About 1718. London, Wallace Collection
graceful, a society in which all are dressed in sparkling silk without looking showy,
and where the life of the shepherds and shepherdesses seems to be a succession
of minuets. From such a description one might get the impression that the art of
Watteau is over-precious and artificial. For many, it has come to reflect the taste of
the French aristocracy of the early eighteenth century which is known as Rococo;
the fashion for dainty colours and delicate decoration which succeeded the more
robust taste of the Baroque period, and which expressed itself in gay frivolity. But
Watteau was far too great an artist to be a mere exponent of the fashions of his time.
Rather it was he whose dreams and ideals helped to mould the fashion we call
Rococo. Just as Vandyke had helped to create the idea of the gentlemanly ease we
associate with the Cavaliers (p. 304, Fig. 254), so Watteau has enriched our store
of imagination by his vision of graceful gallantry.
Fig. 289 shows his picture of a picnic in a park. There is nothing of the noisy
gaiety of Jan Steen’s revelries (p. 319, Fig. 267) in this scene; a sweet and almost
melancholy calm prevails. These young men and women just sit and dream. The
light plays on their shimmering dresses, and transfigures the copse into an earthly
paradise. The qualities of Watteau’s art, the delicacy of his brushwork and the
refinement of his colour harmonies do not easily come out in reproductions. His
immensely sensitive paintings and drawings must really be seen and enjoyed in the
original. Like Rubens, whom he admired, Watteau could convey the impression
of living, palpitating flesh through a mere whiff of chalk or colour. But the mood of
his studies is as different from Rubens’s as his paintings are from Jan Steen’s. There
is a touch of sadness in these visions of beauty which is difficult to describe or define.
342 Power and Glory: the Catholic North
but which lifts Watteau’s art beyond the sphere of mere skill and prettiness.
Watteau was a sick man, who died of consumption at an early age. Perhaps it was
his awareness of the transience of beauty which gave to his art that intensity which
none of his many admirers and imitators could equal.
290. Art under Royal patronage. In 1667 Louis XIV, accompanied by his Minister, Colbert,
paid a visit to the Royal Gobelin Manufacture to manifest his interest in what would now be
called ‘the standard of French design* which formed an important ‘asset* in Colbert’s
‘export drive*. The tapestry was commissioned to commemorate the occasion
chapter 23 • THE AGE OF REASON
England and France , Eighteenth Century
291. A seventeenth-century Cathedral: St. Paul*s s London .
Built by sir Christopher wren from 1675 to 1710
T HE period round about 1700 had seen the culmination of the Baroque
movement in Catholic Europe. The Protestant countries could not help
being impressed by this all-pervading fashion but, nevertheless, they did
not actually adopt it. This even applies to England during the Restoration period,
when the Stuart court looked towards France and abhorred the taste and outlook
344 The Age of Reason
of the Puritans. It was during this period that England produced her greatest
architect, Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723), who was given the task of rebuilding
London’s churches after the fire of 1666. It is interesting to compare his St. Paul’s
Cathedral (Fig. 291) with a church of the Roman Baroque, built only some twenty
years earlier (p. 325, Fig. 273). We see that Wren was definitely influenced by the
groupings and effects of the Baroque architect, although he himself had never been
in Rome. Like Borromini’s church, Wren’s cathedral, which is much larger in scale,
consists of a central cupola, flanking towers, and the suggestion of a temple facade
to frame the main entrance. There is even a definite similarity between Borromini’s
Baroque towers and Wren’s, particularly in the second storey. Nevertheless,
the general impression of the two facades is very different. St. Paul’s is not
curved. There is no suggestion of movement, rather of strength and stability.
The way in which the paired columns are used to give stateliness and nobility
to the facade recalls Versailles (p. 335, Fig. 282) rather than the Roman Baroque.
Looking at the details, we may even wonder whether or not to call Wren’s style
Baroque. There is nothing of the freakish or fantastic in his decoration. All his
forms adhere strictly to the best models of the Italian Renaissance. Each form
and each part of the building can be viewed by itself without losing its intrinsic
meaning. Compared with the exuberance of Borromini, or of the architect of
Melk, Wren impresses us as being restrained and sober.
The contrast between Protestant and
292. Interior of St. Stephen's , Walbrook.
Designed by sir Christopher wren. 1672
Catholic architecture is even more marked
when we consider the interior of Wren’s
churches — for instance that of St. Stephen
in London (Fig. 292). A church like this is
designed mainly as a hall where the faith-
ful meet for common worship. Its aim is
not to conjure up a vision of another
world, but rather to allow us to collect
our thoughts. In the many churches he
designed, Wren endeavoured to giveever-
new variations on the theme of such a hall,
which would be both dignified and simple.
As with churches, so with castles. No
king of England could have raised the
prodigious sums to build a Versailles, and
no English peer would have cared to
compete with the German princelings in
luxury and extravagance. It is true that
the building craze reached England.
The Age of Reason
345
293. Chiswick House, London. Designed by lord Burlington and william Kent
about 1725, enlarged by James Wyatt in 1788
Marlborough’s Blenheim Palace is even larger in scale than Prince Eugene’s
Belvedere. But these were exceptions. The ideal of the English eighteenth century
was not the castle but the country house.
The architects of these country houses usually rejected the extravagances of the
Baroque style. It was their ambition not to infringe any rule of what they considered
‘good taste’, and so they were anxious to keep as closely as possible to the real or
pretended laws of classical architecture. Architects of the Italian Renaissance who
had studied and measured the ruins of antique buildings with scientific care had pub-
lished their findings in text-books to provide builders and craftsmen with patterns.
The most famous of these books was written by Andrea Palladio (p. 266). This
book of Palladio’s came to be considered the ultimate authority on all rules of taste
in architecture in eighteenth-century England. To build one’s villa in the ‘Palladian
manner’ was considered the last word in fashion. Fig. 293 shows such a Palladian
villa, Chiswick House near London. Its centre-piece, designed for his own use by
the great leader of taste and fashion. Lord Burlington (1695-1753), and decorated
by his friend, William Kent (1685-1748), is indeed a close imitation of Palladio’s
Villa Rotonda (p. 265, Fig. 223). True, the whole facade, which was completed
later in the eighteenth century, shows that the Baroque taste for impressive display
was not altogether rejected in England. Like many country-houses of the period
it is broken up into different ‘wings’ and ‘pavilions’, whose effective grouping
may be compared to that of Hildebrandt’s Belvedere (p. 337, Fig. 284). But
this surprising similarity in the general outline also brings out the difference in
detail, for unlike Hildebrandt and the other architects of Catholic Europe the
designers of the British villa nowhere offend against the strict rules of the classical
346 The Age of Reason
style. The stately portico has the correct form of an antique temple front, built in
the Corinthian order (p. 74). The wall of the building is simple and plain, there are
no curves and volutes, no statues to crown the roof, and no grotesque decorations.
For the rule of taste in the England of Burlington and Pope was also the rule of
reason. The whole temper of the country was opposed to the flights of fancy of
Baroque designs, and to an art that aimed at impressing and overwhelming the
emotions. The formal parks of the style of Versailles, whose endless clipped hedges
and alleyways had extended the architects’ design beyond the actual building far
into the surrounding country, were condemned as absurd and artificial. A garden or
park should reflect the beauties of nature, it should be a collection of fine scenery
such as might charm the painter’s eye. It was men such as Kent who invented the
English ‘landscape garden’ as the ideal surroundings of their Palladian villas. Just
as they had appealed to the authority of an Italian architect for the rules of reason
and taste in building, so they turned to a southern painter for a standard of beauty
in scenery. Their idea of what nature should look like was largely derived from the
paintings of Claude Lorrain (p. 295, Fig. 248), and we have seen that these painters’
visions thus came to mould large tracts of the English countryside.
The position of painters and sculptors under the rule of taste and reason was not
too enviable. We have seen that the victory of Protestantism in England, and the
Puritan hostility to images and to luxury, had dealt the tradition of art in England
a severe blow. Almost the only purpose for which painting was still in demand was
that of supplying likenesses, and even this function had largely been met by foreign
artists such as Holbein (p. 274) and Vandyke (p. 302), who were called to England
after they had established their reputations abroad.
The fashionable gentlemen of Lord Burlington’s day had no objection to paint-
ings or sculptures on puritan grounds, but they were not eager to place commissions
with native artists who had not yet made a name in the outside world. If they
wanted a painting for their villas, they would much rather buy one which bore the
name of some famous Italian master. They prided themselves on being connoisseurs,
and some of them assembled the most admirable collections of old masters, without,
however, giving much employment to the painters of their time.
This state of affairs greatly irritated a young English engraver who had to make
his living by illustrating books. His name was William Hogarth (1697-1764). He
felt that he had it in him to be as good a painter as those whose works were bought
for hundreds of pounds from abroad, but he knew that there was no public for con-
temporary art in England. He therefore set out deliberately to create a new type
of painting which should appeal to his countrymen. He knew that they were likely
to ask ‘What is the use of a painting?’ and he decided that in order to impress
people brought up in the puritan tradition, art must have an obvious use. Accord-
ingly, he planned a number of paintings which should teach the people the rewards
The Age of Reason 347
of virtue and the wages of sin. He would show a ‘Rake’s Progress’ from profligacy
and idleness to crime and death, or ‘The Four Stages of Cruelty ’ from a boy teasing
a cat to a grown-up’s brutal murder. He would paint these edifying stories and
warning examples in such a way that anyone who saw the series of pictures would
understand all the incidents and the lessons they taught. His paintings, in fact,
should resemble a kind of dumb show in which all the characters have their
appointed task and make its meaning clear through gestures and the use of stage
properties. Hogarth himself compared his new type of painting to the art of the
playwright and the theatrical producer. He did everything to bring out what he
called the ‘character’ of each figure, not only through his face but also through his
dress and behaviour. Each of his picture sequences can be read like a story or,
rather, like a sermon. In this respect, this type of art was not perhaps quite as new
as Hogarth thought. We know that all medieval art used images to impart a lesson,
and this tradition of the picture sermon had lived on in popular art up to the time
of Hogarth. Crude woodcuts had been sold at fairs to show the fate of the drunkard
or the perils of gambling, and the ballad-mongers sold pamphlets with similar tales.
Hogarth, however, was no popular artist in this sense. He had made a careful study
of the masters of the past and of their way of achieving pictorial effects. He knew
the Dutch masters, such as Jan Steen, who filled their pictures with humorous
episodes from the life of the people and excelled in bringing out the characteristic
expression of a type (p. 319, Fig. 269). He also knew the methods of the Italian
artists of his time, of Venetian painters of the type of Guardi (p. 333, Fig. 280), who
had taught him the trick of conjuring up the idea of a figure with a few spirited
touches of the brush.
Fig. 294 shows an episode from the ‘Rake’s Progress’ in which the poor rake has
become a raving maniac and has to be put in irons in Bedlam. It is a crude scene of
horror with all types of madmen represented: the religious fanatic in the first cell
writhing on his bed of straw like the parody of a Baroque picture of a saint, the
megalomaniac with his royal crown seen in the next cell, the idiot who scrawls the
picture of the world on to the wall of Bedlam, the blind man with his paper telescope,
the grotesque trio grouped round the staircase, the grinning fiddler, the foolish
singer, and the touching figure of the apathetic man who just sits and stares ; and,
finally, the main group of the rake, raving mad, with two men and a woman putting
him in irons, the cruel equivalent of the strait-jacket. It is a tragic scene, made even
more tragic by the grotesque dwarf who mocks it, and by the contrast with the two
elegant visitors who had known the rake in the days of his prosperity.
Each figure and each episode in the picture has its place in the story Hogarth
tells, but that alone would not suffice to make it a good painting. What is remark-
able in Hogarth is that, for all his preoccupation with his subject-matter, he still
remained a painter, not only in the way he used his brush and distributed light and
348
The Age of Reason
294. hogarth: The Rake in Bedlam. From ‘The Rake’s Progress’. 1735.
London, Soane Museum
colour, but also in the considerable skill he showed in arranging his groups. The
group round the rake, for all its grotesque horror, is as carefully composed as any
Italian painting of the classical tradition. Hogarth, in fact, was very proud of his
understanding of this tradition. He was sure that he had found the law which
governed beauty. He wrote a book, which he called The Analysis of Beauty, whose
main point is that an undulating line would always be more beautiful than an
angular one. Hogarth, too, belonged to the age of reason and believed in teachable
rules of taste, but he did not succeed in converting his compatriots from their bias
for the old masters. It is true that his picture-series earned him great fame and a
considerable amount of money, but this reputation was due less to the actual painting
than to reproductions he made of them in engravings which were bought by an eager
public. As a painter, the connoisseurs of the period did not take him seriously and,
throughout his life, he waged a grim campaign against the fashionable taste.
It was only a generation later that an English painter was born whose art satisfied
the elegant society of eighteenth-century England — Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92).
Unlike Hogarth, Reynolds had been to Italy and had come to agree with the con-
noisseurs of his time that the great masters of the Italian Renaissance — Raphael,
Michelangelo, Correggio and Titian — were the unrivalled exemplars of true art. He
The Age of Reason 349
had absorbed the teaching attributed to the Carracci (p. 290* Fig. 244), that the only
hope for an artist lay in the careful study and imitation of what were called the
excellencies of the ancient masters — the draughtsmanship of Raphael, the colouring
of Titian. Later in his life, when Reynolds had made a career as an artist in England
and had become the first president of the newly founded Royal Academy of Art, he
expounded this ‘academic’ doctrine in a series of discourses, which still make
interesting reading. They show that Reynolds, like his contemporaries, believed in
the rules of taste and the importance of authority in art. He believed that the right
procedure in art could, to a large extent, be taught, if students were given facilities
for studying the recognized masterpieces of Italian painting. His lectures are full of
exhortations to strive after lofty and dignified subjects, because Reynolds believed
that only the grand and impressive was worthy of the name of Great Art.
From such a description it might easily appear that Reynolds was rather pompous
and boring, but if we read his discourses and look at his pictures, we soon get rid
of this prejudice. The fact is that he accepted the opinions about art which he found
in the writings of the influential critics of the seventeenth century, all of whom were
much concerned with the dignity of what was called ‘history painting’. We have
seen how hard artists had to struggle against social snobbery which made people
look down on painters and sculptors because they worked with their hands (p. 210).
We know how artists had to insist that their real work was not handiwork but brain
work, and that they were no less fit to be received in polite society than poets or
scholars. It was through these discussions that artists were led to stress the import-
ance of poetic invention in art, and to emphasize the elevated subjects with which
their minds were concerned. ‘Granted’, they argued, ‘that there may be something
menial in painting a portrait or a landscape from nature where the hand merely
copies what the eye sees, but surely it requires more than mere craftsmanship: it
requires erudition and imagination to paint a subject like Reni’s “Aurora” (p. 293,
Fig. 246) or Poussin’s “Et in Arcadian ego” (p. 294, Fig. 247) ?’ We know today
that there is a fallacy in this argument. We know that there is nothing undignified
in any kind of handiwork and that, moreover, it needs more than a good eye and
a sure hand to paint a good portrait or landscape; but we have no right to look down
on Reynolds because he had not seen through this particular prejudice in art. We
should rather search our own hearts and see whether there are not things which we
take as much for granted as Reynolds did the superiority of ‘history paintings’.
Although Reynolds sincerely believed in his theories, his actual work consisted
mainly in the painting of portraits because this was still the only kind of painting in
great demand in England. Vandyke had established a standard of society portraits
which all fashionable painters of subsequent generations tried to reach. Those of his
works that hung in the country houses and city palaces of the nobility made the
patrons expect that a good portrait should be flattering. They expected to be shown
350
The Age of Reason
295. REYNOLDS: Portrait of Miss Bowles with her Dog. 1775.
London, Wallace Collection
at their best, and to be turned into models of elegance and gracefulness. It is
interesting to see how Reynolds dealt with this tradition, and to compare his por-
traits with those of his greatest rival in the field, Thomas Gainsborough (1727-88),
who was only four years his junior.
As might have been expected, Reynolds usually tries to give his portraits an
additional interest, to show that he was not merely copying the face and costume
of his sitter but contributed some invention of his own which should bring out the
sitter’s character and add interest to the painting. Even when he had to paint a
child, Reynolds tried to make the picture into more than a mere portrait by trans-
forming it into a little scene which appeals to our imagination. Fig. 295 shows his
portrait of a ‘Miss Bowles with her dog’. We remember that Velazquez, too, had
painted the portrait of a child and dog (p. 307, Fig. 257). But Velazquez had been
interested in the texture and colour of what he saw. Reynolds wants to show us the
touching love of the little girl for her pet. The way in which he made them pose
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351
296. GAINSBOROUGH: Portrait of Miss Haverfield. About 1780.
London, Wallace Collection
before the canvas is much more self-conscious, and much more thought out, than
Velazquez’s straightforward arrangement. But Reynolds thought to a purpose. He
not only gives us a touching subject, but he manages to arrange the group so skilfully
that it makes a well-balanced and interesting picture on its own merits. It is true
that, if we compare his handling of paint and his treatment of the living skin and
the fluffy fur with that of Velazquez, we may find Reynolds disappointing. But it
would hardly be fair to expect of him an effect at which he was not aiming. He
wanted to bring out the character of the sweet child, and to make its tenderness
and its charm live for us. Today, when photographers have so accustomed us to the
trick of observing a child in a similar situation, we may find it difficult fully to
appreciate the originality of Reynolds’s treatment. We may even be tempted to find
it a little trite or cheap. But we must not blame a master for the imitations which
have spoilt his effects. Reynolds never allowed the interest of the subject-matter to
upset the harmony of the painting. His portraits are all of one piece, not mere
352 The Age of Reason
illustrations of a pretty or sentimental situation as those of his later imitators some-
times were; they are real paintings in which a master tried to apply his knowledge
of the great art of the past to a new task.
In the Wallace Collection in London, where Reynolds’s portrait of Miss Bowles
hangs, there is also the portrait of a girl of roughly the same age by Gainsborough —
the portrait of Miss Haverfield (Fig. 296). Gainsborough painted the little lady as
she was tying the bow of her cape. There is nothing particularly moving or interest-
ing in her action. She is just dressing, we fancy, to go for a walk. But Gainsborough
knew how to invest the simple movement with such grace and charm that we find
it as satisfying as Reynolds’s invention of the girl hugging her pet. Gainsborough
was much less interested in ‘invention’ than Reynolds. He was born in rural
Suffolk, had a natural gift for painting, and never found it necessary to go to Italy
to study the great masters. In comparison with Reynolds and all his theories about
the importance of tradition, Gainsborough was almost a self-made man. There is
something in the relationship of the two which recalls the contrast between the
learned Annibale Carracci, who wanted to revive the manner of Raphael, and the
revolutionary Caravaggio, who wanted to acknowledge no teacher except nature.
Reynolds, at any rate, saw Gainsborough somewhat in this light, as a genius who
refused to copy the masters, and, much as he admired his rival’s skill, he felt bound
to warn his students against his principles. Today, after the passage of almost two
centuries, the two masters do not seem to us so very different. We realize, perhaps
more clearly than they did, how much they both owed to the tradition of Vandyke,
and to the fashion of their time. But, if we return to the portrait of Miss Haverfield
with this contrast in mind, we understand the particular qualities which distinguish
Gainsborough’s fresh and unsophisticated approach from Reynolds’s more laboured
style. Gainsborough, we now see, had no intention of being ‘highbrow’; he wanted
to paint straightforward unconventional portraits in which he could display his
brilliant brushwork and his sure eye. And so he succeeds best where Reynolds
disappointed us. His rendering of the fresh complexion of the child and the shining
material of the cape, his treatment of the frills and ribbons of the hat, all this shows
his consummate skill in rendering the texture and surfaces of visible objects. The
rapid and impatient strokes of the brush almost remind us of the work of Frans Hals
(p. 31 1, Fig. 260). But Gainsborough was a less robust artist than Hals. There are,
in many of his portraits, a delicacy of shades and a refinement of touch which rather
recall the visions of Watteau (p. 341, Fig. 289).
Both Reynolds and Gainsborough were rather unhappy to be smothered with
commissions for portraits when they wanted to paint other things. But while
Reynolds longed for time and leisure to paint ambitious mythological scenes or
episodes from ancient history, Gainsborough wanted to paint the very subjects
which his rival despised. He wanted to paint landscapes. For, unlike Reynolds who
The Age of Reason
353
Victoria and Albert Museum
was a man about town, a friend of Dr. Johnson, and a frequenter of society,
Gainsborough loved the quiet countryside, and the only entertainment he really
enjoyed was chamber music. Unfortunately Gainsborough could find but few buyers
for his landscapes, and so most of his pictures remained mere sketches done for his
own enjoyment (Fig. 297). In these he arranged the trees and hills of the English
countryside into picturesque scenes which remind us that this was the age of the
landscape gardener. For Gainsborough’s sketches are no views drawn direct from
nature. They are landscape ‘compositions’, designed to evoke and reflect a mood.
In the eighteenth century English institutions and English taste became the
admired models for all people in Europe who longed for the rule of reason. For in
England art had not been used to enhance the power and glory of god-like rulers.
The public for which Hogarth catered, even the people who posed for Reynolds’s
and Gainsborough’s portraits, were ordinary mortals. We remember that in France,
too, the heavy Baroque grandeur of Versailles had gone out of fashion in the early
eighteenth century in favour of the more delicate and intimate effects of Watteau’s
Rococo (p. 341, Fig. 289). Now this whole aristocratic dream-world began to re-
cede. Painters began to look at the life of the ordinary men and women of their time,
to draw moving or amusing episodes which could be spun out into a story. The
greatest of these was Jean Simeon Chardin (1699-1779), a painter two years younger
than Hogarth. Fig. 298 shows one of his charming paintings — a simple room with a
354
The Age of Reason
298. CHARDIN: Saying Grace ( Le Bdtiidiciie). 1739.
Paris, Louvre
woman setting dinner on to the table, and asking two children to say grace. Chardin
liked these quiet glimpses of the life of ordinary people. He resembles the Dutch
Vermeer (p. 322, Fig. 270) in the way in which he feels and preserves the poetry of
a domestic scene, without looking for striking effects or pointed allusions. Even his
colour is calm and restrained and, by comparison with the scintillating p ainting s
of Watteau, his works may seem to lack brilliance. But if we study them in the
original, we soon discover in them an unobtrusive mastery in the subtle gradation of
tones and the seemingly artless arrangement of the scene, that makes him one of
the most lovable painters of the eighteenth century.
In France, as in England, the new interest for ordinary human beings rather than
for the trappings of power benefited the art of portraiture. Perhaps the greatest
of the French portraitists was not a painter but a sculptor, Houdon (1741-1828).
In his wonderful portrait busts, Houdon carried on the tradition which had been
started by Bernini more than a hundred years earlier (p. 328, Fig. 275). Fig. 299
shows Houdon’s bust of Voltaire, and allows us to see in the face of this great
champion of reason the biting wit, the penetrating intelligence, and also the deep
compassion of a great mind.
299* ho u don: Portrait of Voltaire. 1778. London, Victoria and Albert Museum
356
The Age of Reason
300. FRAGONARD: The Park of the Villa
cTEste in Tivoli . Drawing. About 1760.
Bcsan?on, Museum
The taste for the ‘picturesque ’ aspects of nature, finally, which inspired Gains-
borough’s sketches in England is also represented in eighteenth-century France.
Fig. 300 shows a drawing by J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) who belonged to the
generation of Gainsborough. Fragonard, too, was a painter of great charm who
followed the tradition of Watteau in his themes from high life. In his landscape
drawings he was a master of striking effects. The view from the Villa d’Este in
Tivoli near Rome proves how he could find grandeur and charm in a piece of
actual scenery.
301. The Life School at the Royal Academy with portraits of leading artists including Reynolds
(with the ear-trumpet). Painting by zoffany. 1771. Windsor Castle
chapter 24 • THE BREAK IN TRADITION
England, America and France
Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries
302. A neo-Gothic Villa: Straivberry Hill , built by walpole, bfntley and chutk
about 1750-75
I N history books, modern times begin with the discovery of America by Columbus
in 1492. We remember the importance of that period in art. It was the time of
the Renaissance, the time when being a painter or a sculptor ceased to be an
occupation like any other and became a calling set apart. It was also the period
during which the Reformation, through its fight against images in churches, put
an end to the most frequent use of pictures and sculptures in large parts of Europe,
and forced the artists to look for a new market. But however important all these
events were, they did not result in a sudden break. The large mass of artists were
still organized in guilds and companies, they still had apprentices like other
artisans, and they still relied for commissions largely on the wealthy aristocracy who
needed the artists to decorate their castles and country seats, and to add their
portraits to the ancestral galleries. Even after 1492, in other words, art retained a
natural place in the life of people of leisure, and was generally taken for granted as
something one could not well do without. Even though fashions changed and artists
358 The Break in Tradition
set themselves different problems, some being more interested in harmonious
arrangements of figures, others in the matching of colours or the achievement of
dramatic expression, the purpose of painting or sculpture remained in general the
same, and no one seriously questioned it. This purpose was to supply beautiful
things for people who wanted them and enjoyed them. There were, it is true,
various schools of thought who quarrelled among themselves over what ‘Beauty’
meant and whether it was enough to enjoy the skilful imitation of nature for which
Caravaggio, the Dutch painters, or men like Gainsborough, had become famous, or
whether true beauty did not depend on the capacity of the artist to ‘idealize’ nature
as Raphael, Carracci, Reni or Reynolds were supposed to have done. But these
disputes need not make us forget how much common ground there was among the
disputants, and how much between the artists whom they chose as their favourites.
Even the ‘idealists ’ agreed that the artist must study nature and learn to draw from
the nude, even the ‘naturalists’ agreed that the works of classical antiquity were
unsurpassed in beauty.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century this common ground seemed gradually
to disappear. We have reached the really modern times which dawned when the
French Revolution of 1789 put an end to so many of the assumptions that had been
taken for granted for hundreds, if not for thousands, of years. Just as the Great
Revolution has its roots in the Age of Reason, so have the changes in man’s ideas
about art. The first of these changes concerns the artist’s attitude to what is called
‘Style’. There is a character in one of Moliere’s comedies who is greatly astonished
when he is told that he had spoken prose all his life without knowing it. Something
a little similar happened to the artists of the eighteenth century. In former times,
the style of the period was simply the way in which things were done, adopted
because people thought it was the best and most correct way of achieving certain
effects. In the Age of Reason, people began to become self-conscious about style
and styles. Many architects were still convinced, as we have seen, that the rules laid
down in the books by Palladio guaranteed the ‘right’ style for elegant buildings.
But once you turn to text-books for such questions it is almost inevitable that there
will be others who say : ‘Why must it be just Palladio’ s style ? ’ This is what happened
in England in the course of the eighteenth century. Among the most sophisticated
connoisseurs there were some who wanted to be different from the others. The most
characteristic of these English gentlemen of leisure who spent their time thinking
about style and the rules of taste was the famous Horace Walpole, son of the first
Prime Minister of England. It was Walpole who decided that it was boring to have
his country house on Strawberry Hill built just like any other correct Palladian
villa. He had a taste for the quaint and romantic, and was notorious for his whimsi-
cality. It was quite in keeping with his character that he decided to have Strawberry
Hill built in the Gothic style like a castle from the romantic past (Fig. 302). At the
The Break in Tradition 359
time, about 1770, Walpole’s Gothic villa passed for the oddity of a man who wanted
to show off his antiquarian interests; but seen in the light of what came later, it was
really more than that. It was the first sign of the self-consciousness that made people
select the style of their building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper.
Nor was it the only symptom of this kind. While Walpole selected the Gothic
style for his country house, the architect William Chambers (1726-96) studied the
Chinese style of buildings and of gardening, and built his Chinese Pagoda in Kew
Gardens. The majority of architects, it is true, still kept to the classical forms of
Renaissance building, but even they were increasingly worried about the right style.
They looked with some misgivings on the practice and tradition of architecture
which had grown up since the Renaissance. They found that many of these practices
had no real sanction in the buildings of classical Greece. They realized, with a shock,
that what had passed as the rules of classical architecture since the fifteenth century
was really taken from a few Roman ruins of a more or less decadent period. Now
the temp'es of Periclean Athens were rediscovered and engraved by zealous travel-
lers, ana they looked strikingly different from the classical designs to be found in
Palladio’s book. Thus these architects became preoccupied with correct style.
Walpole’s ‘Gothic Revival’ was matched by a ‘Greek Revival’ which culminated
in the Regency period (1810-20). This is the period in which many of the principal
spas in England enjoyed their greatest prosperity, and it is in these towns that one
can best study the forms of the Greek revival. Fig. 303 shows a house in Cheltenham
Spa which is successfully modelled on the pure Ionic style of Greek temples
(p. 67, Fig. 60). Fig. 304 gives an example of the revival of the Doric order in
its original form such as we know it from the Parthenon (p. 49, Fig. 45). It is a
design for a villa by the famous architect John Soane (1752-1837). If we compare
it with the Palladian villa built by William Kent some eighty years earlier (p. 345,
Fig. 293) the superficial similarity only brings out the difference. Kent used the
forms he found in tradition freely to compose his building. Soane’s project, by
comparison, looks like an exercise in the correct use of the elements of Greek style.
This conception of architecture as an application of strict and simple rules was
bound to appeal to the champions of Reason whose power and influence continued
to grow all over the world. Thus it is not surprising that a man such as Thomas
Jefferson (1743-1826), one of the founders of the United States and its third
President, designed his own residence, Monticello, in this lucid, neo-classical style
(Fig. 305), and that the city of Washington, with its public buildings, was planned
in the forms of the Greek revival. In France, too, the victory of this style was
assured after the French Revolution. The old happy-go-lucky tradition of Baroque
and Rococo builders and decorators was identified with the past which had just been
swept away; it had been the style of the castle of royalty, and of the aristocracy,
while the men of the Revolution liked to think of themselves as the free citizens of a
304. JOHN SOANE: Design for a Country House. From Sketches in Architecture
published in 1798
The Break in Tradition
361
305. Monticello (Virginia). Built by thomas jefferson between 1796 and 1806
new-born Athens. When Napoleon, posing as the champion of the ideas of the
Revolution, rose to power in Europe, the ‘neo-classical 5 style of architecture became
the style of the Empire . On the Continent, too, a Gothic revival existed side by side
with this new revival of the pure Greek style. It appealed particularly to those
Romantic minds who despaired of the power of Reason to reform the world and
longed for a return to what they called the Age of Faith.
In painting and sculpture, the break in the chain of tradition was perhaps less
immediately perceptible than it was in architecture, but it was possibly of even
greater consequence. Here, too, the roots of the trouble reach back far into the
eighteenth century. We have seen how dissatisfied Hogarth was with the tradition
of art as he found it, and how deliberately he set out to create a new kind of painting
for a new public. We remember how Reynolds, on the other hand, was anxious to
preserve that tradition as if he realized that it was in danger. The danger lay in the
fact mentioned before, that painting had ceased to be an ordinary trade the know-
ledge of which was handed down from master to apprentice. Instead, it had become
a subject like philosophy to be taught in academies. The very word ‘academy’ sug-
gests this new approach. It is derived from the name of the villa in which the Greek
philosopher Plato taught his disciples, and was gradually applied to gatherings of
learned men in search of wisdom. Artists at first called their meeting places
362 The Break in Tradition
‘academies’ to stress that equality with scholars on which they set such great store;
but it was only in the eighteenth century that these academies gradually took over
the function of teaching art to students. Thus, the old methods by which the great
masters of the past had learned their trade by grinding colours and assisting their
elders, had fallen into decline. No wonder that academic teachers like Reynolds felt
compelled to urge young students to study diligently the masterpieces of the past
and to assimilate their technical skill. The academies of the eighteenth century were
under royal patronage, to manifest the interest which the King took in the arts in
his realm. But, for the arts to flourish, it is perhaps less important that they should
be taught in Royal Institutions than that there should be enough people willing to
buy paintings or sculptures by living artists.
It was here that the main difficulties arose, because the very emphasis on the
greatness of the masters of the past, which was favoured by the academies, made
patrons inclined to buy old masters rather than to commission paintings from the
living. As a remedy, the academies, first in Paris, then in London, began to arrange
annual exhibitions of the works of their members. Today we are so used to the idea
of artists painting and sculptors modelling their work mainly with the idea of send-
ing them to an exhibition to attract the attention of art critics and to find buyers,
that we may find it hard to realize what a momentous change this was. These
annual exhibitions were social events that formed the topic of conversation in polite
society, and made and unmade reputations. Instead of working for individual
patrons whose wishes they understood, or for the general public, whose taste they
could gauge, artists had now to work for success in a show where there was always
a danger of the spectacular and pretentious outshining the simple and sincere. The
temptation was indeed great for artists to attract attention by selecting melodramatic
subjects for their paintings, and by relying on size and loud colour effects to impress
the public. Thus it is not surprising that some genuine artists despised the ‘official’
art of the academies, and that the clash of opinions between those whose gifts
allowed them to appeal to the public taste and those who found themselves excluded,
threatened to destroy the common ground on which all art had so far developed.
Perhaps the most immediate and visible effect of this profound crisis was that
artists everywhere looked for new types of subject-matter. In the past, the subject-
matter of paintings had been very much taken for granted. If we walk round our
galleries and museums we soon discover how many of the paintings illustrate
identical topics. The majority of the older pictures, of course, represent religious
subjects taken from the Bible, and the legends of the saints. But even those that are
secular in character are mostly confined to a few selected themes. There are the
mythologies of ancient Greece with their stories of the loves and quarrels of the
gods; there are the heroic tales from Rome with their examples of valour and self-
sacrifice; and there are, finally, the allegorical subjects illustrating some general
The Break in Tradition
363
306. Copley: Charles I demanding the Surrender q j the five impeached M.P. a. 1785.
Boston, Public Library
truth by means of personifications. It is curious how rarely artists before the middle
of the eighteenth century strayed from these narrow limits of illustration, how
rarely they painted a scene from a romance, or an episode of medieval or contem-
porary history. All this changed very rapidly during the period of the French
Revolution. Suddenly artists felt free to choose as their subjects anything from a
Shakespearian scene to a topical event, anything, in fact, that appealed to the
imagination and aroused interest. This disregard for the traditional subject-matters
of art may have been the only thing the successful artists of the period and the
lonely rebels had in common.
It is hardly an accident that this breakaway from the established traditions of
European art was partly accomplished by artists who had come to Europe from
across the ocean — Americans who worked in England. Obviously these men felt
less bound to the hallowed customs of the Old World and were readier to try new
experiments. The American John Singleton Copley (1737-1815) is a typical artist
of this group. Fig. 306 shows one of his large paintings which caused a sensation
when it was first exhibited in 1785. The subject was indeed an unusual one. The
Shakespearian scholar Malone, a friend of the politician Edmund Burke, had
suggested it to the painter and provided him with all the historical information
necessary. He was to paint the famous incident when Charles I demanded from the
House of Commons the arrest of five impeached members, and when the Speaker
challenged the King’s authority and declined to surrender them. Such an episode
from comparatively recent history had never been made the subject of a large
364 The Break in Tradition
painting before, and the method which Copley selected for the task was equally
unprecedented. It was his intention to reconstruct the scene as accurately as pos-
sible — as it would have presented itself to the eyes of a contemporary witness. He
spared no pains in getting the historical facts. He consulted antiquarians and
historians about the actual shape of the chamber in the seventeenth century and
the costumes people wore ; he travelled from country house to country house to
collect portraits of as many men as possible who were known to have been Members
of Parliament at that critical moment. In short, he acted as a conscientious producer
might act today when he has to reconstruct such a scene for an historical film or
play. We may or may not find these efforts well spent. But it is a fact that, for more
than a hundred years afterwards, many artists great and small saw their task in
exactly this type of antiquarian research, which should help people to visualize the
decisive moments of the past.
In Copley’s case, this attempt to re-evoke the dramatic clash between the King
and the representatives of the people was certainly not only the work of a disin-
terested antiquarian. Only two years before, George III had had to submit to the
challenge of the colonists and had signed the peace with the United States. Burke,
from whose circle the suggestion for the subject had come, had been a consistent
opponent of the war, which he considered unjust and disastrous. The meaning of
Copley’s evocation of the previous rebuff to royal pretensions was perfectly under-
stood by all. The story is told that when the Queen saw the painting she turned
away in pained surprise, and after a long and ominous silence said to the young
American: ‘You have chosen, Mr. Copley, a most unfortunate subject for the
exercise of your pencil’. She could not know how unfortunate the reminiscence was
going to prove. Those who remember the history of these years will be struck by
the fact that, hardly four years later, the scene of the picture was to be re-enacted
in France. This time, it was Mirabeau who denied the King’s right to interfere with
the representatives of the people, and thus gave the starting signal to the French
Revolution of 1789.
The French Revolution gave an enormous impulse to this type of interest in
history, and to the painting of heroic subjects. Copley had looked for examples in
England’s national past. There was a Romantic strain in his historical painting
which may be compared to the Gothic revival in architecture. The French revolu-
tionaries loved to think of themselves as Greeks and Romans re-bom, and their
painting, no less than their architecture, reflected this taste for what was called
Roman grandeur. The leading artist of this neo-classical style was the painter
Jacques Louis David (1748-1825) who was the ‘official artist’ of the revolutionary
Government, and designed the costumes and settings for such propagandist
pageantries as the ‘Festival of the Supreme Being’ in which Robespierre officiated
as a self-appointed High Priest. These people felt that they were living in heroic
The Break in Tradition 365
times, and that the events of their own
years were just as worthy of the painter’s
attention as were the episodes of Greek
and Roman history. When one of the
leaders of the French Revolution, Marat,
was killed in his bath by a fanatical young
woman, David painted him as a martyr
who had died for his cause (Fig. 307).
Marat was apparently in the habit of
working in his bath, and his bath tub
was fitted with a simple desk. His
assailant had handed him an application
which he was about to sign when she
struck him down. The situation does not
seem to lend itself easily to a picture of
dignity and grandeur, but David suc-
ceeded in making it seem heroic, while
yet sticking to the actual details of a
police record. He had learned from the study of Greek and Roman sculpture how
to model the muscles and sinews of the body, and give it the appearance of noble
beauty; he had also learned from classical art to leave out all details which are not
essential to the main effect, and to aim at simplicity. There are no motley colours
and no complicated foreshortening in the painting. Compared to Copley’s great
showpiece, David’s painting looks austere. It is an impressive commemoration of
a humble ‘friend of the people’ — as Marat had styled himself— who had suffered
the fate of a martyr while working for the common weal.
Among the artists of David’s generation who discarded the old type of subject-
matter was the great Spanish painter Francisco Goya (1746-1828). Goya was well
versed in the best tradition of Spanish painting which had produced El Greco (p.
273, Fig. 229) and Velazquez (p. 307, Fig. 257). Unlike David, he did not renounce
the brilliant colours of the earlier painters in favour of classical grandeur. His
portraits, in fact, which secured him a position at the Spanish court (Fig. 308), look
superficially like State portraits in the vein of Vandyke or of Reynolds. But only
superficially, for as soon as we scrutinize the faces of these grandees we feel that
Goya seems to mock at their pretentious elegance. He looked at these men and
women with a pitiless and searching eye, and revealed all their vanity and ugliness,
their greed and emptiness. No Court Painter before or after has ever left such a
record of his patrons (Fig. 309).
It was not only as a portrait painter that Goya asserted his independence from the
conventions of the past. Like Rembrandt, he produced a great number of etchings.
366
The Break in Tradition
most of them in a new technique called
aquatinta, which allows not only etched
lines but also shaded patches. The most
striking fact about Goya’s prints is that
they are not illustrations of any known
subjects, either biblical, historical or genre.
Most of them are fantastic visions of
witches and of uncanny apparitions. Some
are meant as accusations against the powers
of stupidity and reaction, of human cruelty
and oppression which Goya had witnessed
in Spain, others seem just to give shape to
the artist’s nightmares. Fig. 310 represents
one of the most haunting of his dreams —
the figure of a giant sitting on the edge of
the world. We can gauge his colossal size
from the tiny landscape in the foreground,
and can see how he dwarfs houses and
castles into mere specks. We can make
our imagination play round this dreadful
apparition, which is drawn with a clarity of outline as if it were a study from life.
The monster sits in the moonlit landscape like some evil incubus. Was Goya
thinking of the fate of his country, of its oppression by wars and human folly ?
Or was he simply creating an image like a poem? For this was the most out-
standing effect of the break in tradition — that artists felt free to put their private
visions on paper as hitherto only the poets had done.
The most outstanding example of this new approach to art was that of the English
poet and mystic William Blake (1757-1827) who was eleven years younger than
Goya. Blake was a deeply religious man who lived in a world of his own. He despised
the official art of the academies, and declined to accept its standards. Some thought
he was completely mad; others dismissed him as a harmless crank, and only a very
few of his contemporaries believed in his art and saved him from starvation. He
lived by making etchings, sometimes for others, sometimes to illustrate his own
poems. Fig. 31 1 represents one of Blake’s illustrations to his poem Europe, a
Prophecy . It is said that Blake had seen this enigmatic figure of an old man, bend-
ing down to measure the globe with a compass, in a vision which hovered over his
head at the top of a staircase when he was living in Lambeth. There is a passage in
the Bible (Proverbs viii. 22-7), in which Wisdom speaks and says:
‘The Lord possessed me in the beginning of His way, before His works of old . . .
before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth . . . when He
308. GOYA: King Ferdinand VII of Spain.
Painted in 1814. Madrid, Prado
309. Detail of Fig. 308
368
The Break in Tradition
310. goya: The Giant. Etching.
About 1820
prepared the Heavens, I was there : when He set a compass on the face of the depths :
when He established the clouds above: when He strengthened the fountains of
the deep.’
It is this grandiose vision of the Lord setting a compass upon the face of the
depths that Blake illustrated. There is something of Michelangelo’s figure of the
Lord (p. 227, Fig. 191) in this image of the Creation, and Blake admired Michel-
angelo. But in his hands the figure has become dream-like and fantastic. In fact,
Blake had formed a mythology of his own, and the figure of the vision was not
strictly speaking the Lord Himself, but a being of Blake’s imagination whom he
called Urizen. Though Blake conceived of Urizen as the creator of the world, he
thought of the world as bad and therefore of its creator as of an evil spirit. Hence
the uncanny nightmare character of the vision, in which the compass appears like
a flash of lightning in a dark and stormy night.
Blake was so wrapped up in his visions that he refused to draw from life and
relied entirely on his inner eye. It is easy to point to faults in his draughtsmanship,
but to do so would be to miss the point of his art. Like the medieval artists, he did
not care for accurate representation, because the significance of each figure of his
dreams was of such overwhelming importance to him that questions of mere
correctness seemed to him irrelevant. He was the first artist after the Renaissance
who thus consciously revolted against the accepted standards of tradition, and we
can hardly blame his contemporaries who found him shocking. It was almost a
The Break in Tradition
369
311. blake: The Ancient of Days. Metal cut, with water-colour.
1794. London, British Museum
century before he was generally recognized as one of the most important figures
in English art.
There was one branch of painting that profited much by the artist’s new freedom
in his choice of subject-matter — this was landscape painting. So far, it had been
looked upon as a minor branch of art. The painters, in particular, who had earned
their living painting ‘views ’ of country houses, parks or picturesque scenery, were
not taken seriously as artists. This attitude changed somewhat through the Romantic
spirit of the late eighteenth century, and great artists saw it as their purpose in life
to raise this type of painting to new dignity. Here, too, tradition could serve both
as a help and a hindrance, and it is fascinating to see how differently two English
landscape painters of the same generation approached this question. One was
William Turner (1775-1851), the other John Constable (1776-1837). There is
312. constable: The Haywain . 1821. London, National Gallery
313. constable : Dedham Mill. Oil sketch. Painted in 1820. London, Victoria and Albert Museum
314* turner: Steamer in Snowstorm. Painted in 1842. London, Tate Gallery
The Break in Tradition
373
something in the contrast of these two men which recalls the contrast between
Reynolds and Gainsborough, but, in the fifty years which separates their genera-
tions, the gulf between the approaches of the two rivals had very much widened.
Turner, like Reynolds, was an immensely successful artist whose pictures often
caused a sensation at the Royal Academy. Like Reynolds, he was obsessed with the
problem of tradition. It was his ambition in life to reach, if not surpass, the cele-
brated landscape paintings of Claude Lorrain (p. 295, Fig. 248). When he left his
pictures and sketches to the nation, he did so on the express condition that one of
them (Fig. 315) must always be shown side by side with a work by Claude Lorrain.
Turner hardly did himself justice by inviting this comparison. The beauty of
Claude’s pictures lies in their serene simplicity and calm, in the clarity and con-
creteness of his dream-world, and in the absence of any loud effects. Turner, too,
had visions of a fantastic world bathed in light and resplendent with beauty, but it
was a world not of calm but of movement, not of simple harmonies but of dazzling
pageantries. He crowded into his pictures every effect which could make it more
striking and more dramatic, and, had he been a lesser artist than he was, this desire
to impress the public might well have had a disastrous result. Yet he was such a
superb stage manager, he worked with such gusto and skill that he carried it off and
the best of his pictures do, in fact, give us a conception of the grandeur of nature
at its most romantic and sublime. Fig. 314 shows one of Turner’s most daring
paintings — a steamer in a blizzard. If we compare this whirling composition with
the seascape of Vlieger (p. 312, Fig. 261) we gain a measure of the boldness of
Turner’s approach. The Dutch artist of the seventeenth century did not only paint
what he saw at a glance, but also, to some extent, what he knew was there. He knew
how a ship was built and how it was rigged, and, looking at his painting, we might
be able to reconstruct these vessels. Nobody could reconstruct a nineteenth-century
steamer from Turner’s seascape. All he gives us is the impression of the dark hull,
of the flag flying bravely from the mast — of a battle with the raging seas and threat-
ening squalls. We almost feel the rush of the wind and the impact of the waves. We
have no time to look for details. They are swallowed up by the dazzling light and
the dark shadows of the storm cloud. I do not know whether Turner ever saw a
storm of this kind, nor even whether a blizzard at sea really looks like this. But I do
know that it is a storm of this awe-inspiring and overwhelming kind that we imagine
when reading a romantic poem or listening to romantic music. In Turner, nature
always reflects and expresses man’s emotions. We feel small and overwhelmed in
the face of the powers we cannot control, and are compelled to admire the artist
who had nature’s forces at his command.
Constable’s ideas were very different. To him the tradition which Turner wanted
to rival and surpass was not much more than a nuisance. He wanted to paint what
he saw with his own eyes — not with those of Claude Lorrain. It might be said that
374
The Break in Tradition
315. turner: The Founding of Carthage , painted in 1815. London, National Gallery
he continued where Gainsborough had left off (p. 353, Fig. 297). But even Gains-
borough had still selected motifs which were ‘picturesque ’ by traditional standards.
He had still looked at nature as a pleasing setting for idyllic scenes. To Constable
all these ideas were unimportant. He wanted nothing but the truth. The fashionable
landscape painters who still took Claude as their model had developed a number
of easy tricks by which any amateur could compose an effective and pleasing
picture. An impressive tree in the foreground would serve as a striking contrast to
the distant view that opened up in the centre. The colour scheme was neatly worked
out. Warm colours, preferably brown and golden tones, should be in the foreground.
The background should fade into pale blue tints. There were recipes for painting
clouds, and special tricks for imitating the bark of gnarled oaks. Constable despised
all these set-pieces. The story goes that a friend remonstrated with him for not
giving his foreground the requisite mellow brown of an old violin, and that Constable
thereupon took a violin and put it before him on the grass to show the friend the
difference between the fresh green as we see it and the warm tones demanded by
convention. But Constable had no wish to shock people by daring innovations. All
he wanted was to be faithful to his own vision. He went out to the countryside to
make sketches from nature, and then elaborated them in his studio. His sketches
(Fig. 313) are often bolder than his finished pictures, but the time had not yet come
when the public would accept the record of a rapid impression as a work worthy to
be shown at an exhibition. Even so, his finished pictures caused a sensation when
The Break in Tradition
375
316. CASPAR DAVID Friedrich: Landscape in the Silesian Mountains. About 1815-20.
Munich, Neue Pinakothck
they were first shown. Fig. 312 shows the painting which made Constable famous in
Paris when it was shown there in 1824. It represents a simple rural scene, a hay-
wain fording a river. We must lose ourselves in the picture, watch the patches of
sunlight on the meadows in the background and look at the drifting clouds; we must
follow the course of the river, and linger by the mill which is painted with such
restraint and simplicity, to appreciate the artist’s absolute sincerity, his refusal to be
more impressive than nature, and his complete lack of pose or pretentiousness.
The break with tradition had left artists with the two possibilities which were
embodied in Turner and Constable. They could become poets in painting, and
seek moving and dramatic effects, or they could decide to keep to the motif in front
of them, and explore it with all the insistence and honesty at their command. There
were certainly great artists among the Romantic painters of Europe, men such as
Turner’s contemporary, the German painter Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840),
whose landscape pictures reflect the mood of the Romantic lyrical poetry of his
time which is more familiar to us through Schubert’s songs. His painting of a bleak
mountain scenery (Fig. 316) may even remind us of the spirit of Chinese landscape
paintings (p. 107, Fig. 97) which also comes so close to the ideas of poetry. But
376 The Break in Tradition
however great and deserved was the popular success which some of these Romantic
painters achieved in their days, we believe today that those who followed Constable’s
path and tried to explore the visible world rather than to conjure up poetic moods,
achieved something of more lasting importance.
317. The new role of ‘ official exhibitions' : Charles X of France distributing decorations
in the Paris 'Salon' of 1824. Painting by F. c. heim. Paris, Louvre
chapter 25 • REVOLUTION IN PERMANENCE
The Nineteenth Century
318. A nineteenth-century ‘ state ’ building: the Houses of Parliament 3 London . Designed by
BARRY and A. w. N. PUGIN m 1835
W HAT I have called the break in tradition, which marks the period
of the Great Revolution in France, was bound to change the whole
situation in which artists lived and worked. The academies and
exhibitions, the critics and connoisseurs, had done their best to introduce a distinc-
tion between Art with a capital A and the mere exercise of a craft, be it that of the
painter or the builder. Now these foundations on which art had rested throughout
its existence were being undermined from another side. The Industrial Revolution
began to destroy the very traditions of solid craftsmanship; handiwork gave way to
machine production, the workshop to the factory.
The most immediate results of this change were visible in architecture. The lack
of solid craftsmanship, combined with a strange insistence on ‘style’ and ‘beauty’,
nearly killed it. The amount of building done in the nineteenth century was prob-
ably greater than in all former periods taken together. It was the time of the vast
expansion of cities in Europe and America that turned whole tracts of country into
‘built-up areas’. But this time of unlimited building activity had no natural style
of its own. The rules of thumb and pattern books, which had so admirably served
37 ^ Revolution in Permanence
their turn up to the Georgian period, were generally discarded as too simple and
too ‘inartistic’. The business man or town committee who planned a new factory,
railway station, school building or museum, wanted Art for their money. Accord-
ingly, when the other specifications had been fulfilled, the architect was commis-
sioned to provide a facade in the Gothic style, to turn the building into the semblance
of a Norman castle, a Renaissance palace, or even an Oriental mosque. Certain
conventions were more or less accepted, but they did not help much to improve
matters. Churches were more often than not built in the Gothic style because this had
been prevalent in what was called the Age of Faith. For theatres and opera houses
the theatrical Baroque style was often considered suitable, while palaces and ministries
were thought to look most dignified in the stately forms of the Italian Renaissance.
It would be unfair to assume that there were no gifted architects in the nineteenth
century. There certainly were. But the situation of their art was all against them.
The more conscientiously they studied to imitate the bygone styles, the less their
designs were likely to be adapted to the purpose for which they were intended. And
if they decided to be ruthless with the conventions of the style they had to adopt,
the result was usually not too happy either. Some nineteenth-century architects
succeeded in finding a way between these two unpleasant alternatives, and in
creating works which are neither sham antiques nor mere freak inventions. Their
buildings have become landmarks of the cities in which they stand, and we have
come to accept them almost as if they were part of the natural scenery. This is
true, for instance, of the Houses of Parliament in London (Fig. 318), whose history
is characteristic of the difficulties under which architects of the period had to work.
When the old chamber burned down in 1834, a competition was organized, and
the jury’s choice fell on the design of Sir Charles Barry (1795-1863), an expert
on the Renaissance style. It was found, however, that England’s civil liberties rested
on the achievements of the Middle Ages, and that it was right and proper to erect
the shrine of British Freedom in the Gothic style — a point of view, by the way,
which was still universally accepted when the restoration of the chamber after its
destruction by German bombers was discussed after the last war. Accordingly,
Barry had to seek the advice of an expert on Gothic details, A. W. N. Pugin
(1812—52), whose father had been an ardent champion of the Gothic revival. The
collaboration amounted more or less to this— that Barry was allowed to determine
the overall shape and grouping of the building, while Pugin looked after the decora-
tion of the facade and the interior. To us this would hardly seem a very satisfactory
procedure, but the outcome was not too bad. Seen from the distance, through the
London mists, Barry’s outlines do not lack a certain dignity; and, seen at close
quarters, the Gothic details still retain something of their Romantic appeal.
In painting or sculpture, the conventions of ‘style’ play a less prominent part,
and it might thus be thought that the break in tradition affected these arts less; but
Revolution in Permanence
379
this was not the case. The life of an artist had never been without its troubles and
anxieties, but there was one thing to be said for the ‘good old days’ — no artist need
ask himself why he had come into the world at all. In some ways his work had been
as well defined as that of any other calling. There were always altar-paintings to be
done, portraits to be painted; people wanted to buy pictures for their best parlours,
or commissioned frescoes for their country houses. In all these jobs he could work
on more or less pre-established lines. He delivered the goods which the patron
expected. True, he could produce indifferent work, or do it so superlatively well
that the job in hand was no more than the starting point for a transcendent master-
piece. But his position in life was more or less secure. It was just this feeling of
security that artists lost in the nineteenth century. The break in tradition had
thrown open to them an unlimited field of choice. It was for them to decide whether
they wanted to paint landscapes or dramatic scenes from the past, whether they
chose subjects from Milton or the classics, whether they adopted the restrained
manner of David’s classic revival or the fantastic manner of the Romantic masters.
But the greater the range of choice had become, the less likely was it that the
artist’s taste would coincide with that of his public. Those who buy pictures usually
have a certain idea in mind. They want to get something very similar to what they
have seen elsewhere. In the past, this demand was easily met by the artists because,
even though their work differed greatly in artistic merit, the works of a period
resembled each other in many respects. Now that this unity of tradition had disap-
peared, the artist’s relations with his patron were only too often strained. The
patron’s taste was fixed in one way : the artist did not feel it in him to satisfy that
demand. If he was forced to do so for want of money, he felt he was making ‘con-
cessions ’, and lost his own self-respect and the esteem of others. If he decided to
follow only his inner voice, and to reject any commission that was not reconcilable
with his idea of art, he was literally in danger of starvation. Thus a deep cleavage
developed in the nineteenth century between those artists whose temperament or
convictions allowed them to follow conventions and to satisfy the public’s demand,
and the others who gloried in their self-chosen isolation. What made matters worse
was that the Industrial Revolution and the decline of craftsmanship, the rise of a new
middle class which often lacked tradition, and the production of cheap and shoddy
goods which masqueraded as ‘art’, had brought about a deterioration of public
taste.
The distrust between artists and the public was generally mutual. To the success-
ful business man, an artist was little better than an impostor who demanded
ridiculous prices for something that could hardly be called honest work. Among
the artists, on the other hand, it became an acknowledged pastime to ‘shock the
burghers’ out of their complacency and to leave them bewildered and bemused.
Artists began to see themselves as a race apart, thev grew long hair and beards, they
380 Revolution in Permanence
dressed in velvet or corduroy, wore broad-brimmed hats and loose ties, and generally
stressed their contempt for the conventions of the ‘respectable This state of affairs
was hardly sound, but it was perhaps inevitable. And it must be acknowledged
that, though the career of an artist was beset with the most dangerous pitfalls, the
new conditions also had their compensations. The pitfalls are obvious. The artist
who sold his soul and pandered to the taste of those who lacked taste was lost. So
was the artist who dramatized his situation, who thought of himself as a genius for
no other reason than that he found no buyers. But the situation was only desper-
ate for weak characters. For the wide range of choice, and the independence of the
patron’s whim, which had been acquired at such high cost, also held its advantages.
For the first time, perhaps, it became true that art was a perfect means of expressing
individuality — provided the artist had an individuality to express.
To many this may sound like a paradox. They think of all art as a means of
‘expression’, and to some extent they are right. But the matter is not quite so
simple as it is sometimes thought to be. It is obvious that an Egyptian artist had
little opportunity of expressing his personality. The rules and conventions of his
style were so strict that there was very little scope for choice. It really comes to this —
that where there is no choice there is no expression. A simple example will make
this clear. If we say that a woman ‘expresses her individuality’ in the way she
dresses, we mean that the choice she makes indicates her fancies and preferences.
We need only watch an acquaintance buying a hat and try to find out why she rejects
this and selects the other. It always has something to do with the way she sees her-
self and wants others to see her, and every such act of choice can teach us some-
thing about her personality. If she had to wear a uniform there might still remain
some scope for ‘expression’, but obviously much less. Style is such a uniform. True,
we know that as time went on the scope it afforded the individual artist increased,
and with it the artist’s means of expressing his personality. Everyone can see that
Fra Angelico was a different type of man from Masaccio, or that Rembrandt
was a different character from Vermeer van Delft. Yet none of these artists was
deliberately making his choice in order to express his personality. He did it only
incidentally, as we express ourselves in everything we do — whether we light a pipe
or run after a bus. The idea that the true purpose of art was to express personality
could only gain ground when art had lost every other purpose. Nevertheless, as
things had developed, it was a true and valuable statement. For what people who
cared about art came to look for in exhibitions and studios was no longer the display
of ordinary skill — that had become too common to warrant attention — they wanted
art to bring them into contact with men with whom it would be worth while to
converse: men whose work gave evidence of an incorruptible sincerity, artists who
were not content with borrowed effects and who would not make a single stroke
of the brush without asking themselves whether it satisfied their artistic conscience.
Revolution in Permanence
381
319. Delacroix: Arabic Fantasy. First exhibited in the Salon of 1834.
Montpellier, Musec Fabry
The history of nineteenth-century painting, as we usually see it today, is really the
history of a handful of such sincere men whose integrity of purpose led them to defy
convention, not in order to gain notoriety, but so that they might explore new
possibilities undreamt of by previous generations.
The stage on which these dramatic clashes took place was the art world of Paris.
For, in the nineteenth century, Paris had become a centre of painting much as
Florence had been in the fifteenth century, and Rome in the seventeenth. The
history of France since the Great Revolution is punctuated by a series of successive
overthrows of the established order in 1830, 1848 and 1871. The history of painting
in Paris looks somewhat similar. There, too, we have successive waves of revolution,
each generation trying to sweep away yet more of the conventions in which the
official art of the academies had got stuck.
The first of these rebels was born in the eighteenth century. He was Eugene
Delacroix (1799-1863). Delacroix revolted against the school of David (p. 365,
Fig. 307) and the standards for which it stood. He had no patience with all the talk
about the Greeks and Romans, with the insistence on correct drawing, and the
constant imitation of classical statues. He believed that, in painting, colour was
much more important than draughtsmanship, and imagination than knowledge.
While David and his school cultivated the Grand Manner and admired Poussin
and Raphael, Delacroix shocked the connoisseurs by preferring the Venetians and
382
Revolution in Permanence
320. millet: The Gleaner ?. 1857. Paris, Louvre
Rubens. He was tired of the learned subjects the academy wanted painters to
illustrate, and went to North Africa to study the glowing colours and romantic
trappings of the Arab world. Fig. 319 shows one of the fruits of his journey. Every-
thing in the picture is a denial of all that painters like David had preached. There
is no clarity of outline here, no modelling of the nude in carefully graded tones of
light and shade, no poise and restraint in the composition, not even a patriotic or
edifying subject. All the painter wants is to make us partake in an intensely exciting
moment, and to share his joy in the movement and romance of the scene, with the
Arab cavalry sweeping past, and the fine thoroughbred rearing in the foreground.
It was Delacroix who acclaimed Constable’s picture in Paris (p. 370, Fig. 312),
though in his personality and choice of romantic subjects he is perhaps more akin
to Turner.
The next revolution was mainly concerned with the conventions governing
subject-matter. In the academies the idea was still prevalent that dignified paintings
must represent dignified personages, and that workers or peasants provided suitable
subjects only for genre scenes in the tradition of the Dutch masters (p. 319).
During the time of the Revolution of 1848, a group of artists gathered in the French
village of Barbizon to follow the programme of Constable and look at nature with
fresh eyes. One of them, Francois Millet (18x4-75), decided to extend this pro-
gramme from landscapes to figures. He wanted to paint scenes from peasant life as
Revolution in Permanence 383
it really was, to paint men and women at work in the fields. It is curious to reflect
that this should have been considered revolutionary, but in the art of the past such
scenes of men at work were introduced only when they fitted into the subject which
was to be illustrated. Fig. 320 represents Millet’s famous picture ‘The Gleaners’.
There is no dramatic incident represented here: nothing in the way of an anecdote.
Just three hard-working people on a flat field where harvesting is in progress. They
are neither beautiful nor graceful. There is no suggestion of the country idyll in the
picture. These peasant women move slowly and heavily. They are all intent on their
work. Millet has done everything to emphasize their square and solid build and
their deliberate movements. He modelled them firmly and in simple outlines against
the bright sunlit plain. Thus his three peasant women assumed a dignity more
natural and more convincing than that of academic heroes. The arrangement, which
looks casual at first sight, supports this impression of tranquil poise. There is a
calculated rhythm in the movement and distribution of the figures which gives
stability to the whole design and makes us feel that the painter looked at the work
of harvesting as a scene of solemn significance.
The painter who gave a name to this movement was Gustave Courbet (1819-77).
When he opened a one-man show in a shack in Paris in the year 1855, he called it
‘Le Realisme, G. Courbet’. His ‘realism’ was to mark a revolution in art. Courbet
wanted to be the pupil of no one but nature. To some extent, his character and
programme resembled that of Caravaggio (p. 291, Fig. 245). He wanted not pretti-
ness but truth.
In the picture of Fig. 321 he has represented himself walking across country with
his painter’s tackle on his back, respectfully greeted by his friend and patron. He
called the picture ‘Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet’. To anyone used to the show-pieces
of academic art, this picture must have seemed downright childish. There are no
graceful poses here, no flowing lines,
no impressive colours. Compared
with its artless arrangement, even
the composition of Millet’s ‘The
Gleaners’ looks calculated. The
whole idea of a painter representing
himself in shirtsleeves as a kind of
tramp must have appeared as an
outrage to the ‘respectable’ artists
and their admirers. This, at any rate,
was the impression Courbet wanted
to make. He wanted his pictures to
be a protest against the accepted
conventions of his day, to ‘shock
321. COURBET: ‘ Bonjour , Monsieur Courbet \ 1854.
Montpellier, Museum
384 Revolution in Permanence
the bourgeois ’ out of his complacency, and
to proclaim the value of uncompromis-
ing artistic sincerity as against the deft
handling of traditional cliches. Sincere
Courbet’s pictures undoubtedly are. ‘I
hope he wrote in a characteristic letter in
1854, ‘always to earn my living by my art
without having ever deviated by even a
hair’s breadth from my principles, without
having lied to my conscience for a single
moment, without painting even as much as
can be covered by a hand only to please
anyone or to sell more easily.’ Courbet’s
deliberate renunciation of easy effects, and
his determination to render the world as
he saw it, encouraged many others to flout
convention and to follow nothing but their
own artistic conscience.
The same concern for sincerity, the
same impatience with the theatrical preten-
tiousness of official art, that led the group
of the Barbizon painters and Courbet to-
wards ‘Realism’, caused a group of Eng-
lish painters to take a very different path.
They pondered about the reasons which had led art into such a dangerous rut. They
knew that the academies claimed to represent the tradition of Raphael and what was
known as the ‘Grand Manner’. If that was true, then art had obviously taken a
wrong turning with, and through, Raphael. It was he and his followers who had
exalted the methods of ‘idealizing’ nature and of striving towards beauty at the
expense of reality. If art was to be reformed, it was therefore necessary to go further
back than Raphael, to the time when artists were still ‘honest to God’ craftsmen,
who did their best to copy nature, while thinking not of earthly glory, but of the
glory of God. Believing, as they did, that art had become insincere through Raphael
and that it behoved them to return to the ‘Age of Faith ’, this group of friends called
themselves the ‘Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood’. One of its most gifted members was
the son of an Italian refugee, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-82). Fig. 322 shows
Rossetti’s painting of the ‘Annunciation’. Usually, this theme was represented on
the pattern of the medieval representations such as p. 154, Fig. 141. Rossetti’s
intention to return to the spirit of the medieval masters did not mean that he wanted
to copy their pictures. What he desired to do was to emulate their attitude, to read
Revolution in Permanence 385
the biblical narrative with a devout heart, and to visualize this scene when the angel
came to the Virgin and saluted her: ‘And when she saw him, she was troubled at his
saying and cast in her mind what mariner of salutation this should be’ (Luke i. 29).
We can see how Rossetti strove for simplicity and sincerity in his new rendering,
and how much he wanted to let us see the ancient story with a fresh mind. But, for
all his intention to render nature as faithfully as the admired Florentines of the
Quattrocento had done, some will feel that the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood set
itself an unattainable goal. To admire the naive faith of the so-called primitives is
one thing, to strive for it oneself is another. For these are virtues which the best will
in the world cannot help us to attain. Far from being unsophisticated, the paintings
of the Pre-Raphaelites are utterly self-conscious. Thus, while their starting point
was similar to that of Millet and Courbet, their honest endeavour landed them in a
blind alley. Their intention, to become new primitives, was too self-contradictory
to succeed. The expressed intention of the French masters, to explore nature re-
gardless of convention, proved much more fruitful.
The third wave of revolution in France (after the first wave of Delacroix and the
second wave of Courbet) was started by Edouard Manet (1832-83) and his friends.
These artists took Courbet’s programme very seriously. They looked out for con-
ventions in painting which had become stale and meaningless. They found that the
whole claim of traditional art to have discovered the way to represent nature, as we
see it, was based on a misconception. At the most, they would concede that tradi-
tional art had found a means of representing men or objects under very artificial
conditions. Painters let their models pose in their studios where the light falls
through the window, and made use of the slow transition from light to shade to give
the impression of roundness and solidity. The art students at the academies were
trained from the beginning to base their pictures on this interplay between light and
shade. At first, they usually drew from plaster casts taken from antique statues,
which they carefully modelled through different densities of shading. Once they
acquired this habit, they applied it to all objects. The public had become so accus-
tomed to seeing things represented in this manner that they had forgotten that in
the open air we do not usually perceive such even gradations from dark to light.
There are harsh contrasts in the sunlight. Objects taken out of the artificial condi-
tions of the artist’s studio do not look so round or so much modelled as plaster casts
from the antique. The parts which are lit appear much brighter than in the studio,
and even the shadows are not uniformly grey or black, because the reflections of
light from surrounding objects affect the colour of these unlit parts. If we trust our
eyes, and not our preconceived ideas of what things ought to look like according to
academic rules, we shall make the most exciting discoveries.
That such ideas were first considered extravagant heresies is hardly surprising.
We have seen throughout this story of art how much we are all inclined to judge
386
Revolution in Permanence
323. manet: The Balcony. First exhibited in the Paris Salon of 1869.
Paris, Louvre
pictures by what we know rather than by what we see. We remember how the
Egyptian artists found it inconceivable to represent a figure without showing each
part from its most characteristic angle. They knew what a foot, an eye, or a hand
‘looked like’, and they fitted these parts together to form a complete man. To repre-
sent a figure with one arm hidden from view, or one foot distorted by foreshortening,
would have seemed to them outrageous. We remember that it was the Greeks who
succeeded in breaking down this prejudice, and allowed foreshortening in pictures
(p. 54, Fig. 49). We remember how the importance of knowledge came to the
Revolution in Permanence
387
324. manet: The Races at Longchamp. Lithograph, about 1872
fore again in early Christian and medieval art (p. 95, Fig. 87) and remained so till
the Renaissance. Even then the importance of theoretical knowledge of what the
world ought to look like was enhanced rather than diminished through the dis-
coveries of scientific perspective and the emphasis on anatomy (p. 167). The great
artists of subsequent periods had made one discovery after another which allowed
them to conjure up a convincing picture of the visible world, but none of them had
seriously challenged the conviction that each object in nature has its definite fixed
form and colour which must be easily recognizable in a painting. It may be said,
therefore, that Manet and his followers brought about a revolution in the rendering
of colours which is almost comparable with the revolution in the representation of
forms brought about by the Greeks. They discovered that, if we look at nature in
the open, we do not see individual objects each with its own colour but rather a
bright medley of tones which blend in our eye or really in our mind.
These discoveries were not made all at once or all by one man. But even Manet’s
first paintings in which he abandoned the traditional method of mellow shading in
favour of strong and harsh contrasts caused an outcry among the conservative
artists. In 1863 the academic painters refused to show his works in the official
exhibition called the Salon. An agitation followed which prompted the authorities
to show all works condemned by the jury in a special show called the ‘Salon of the
Rejected’. The public went there mainly to laugh at the poor deluded tyros who
388 Revolution in Permanence
had refused to accept the verdict of their betters. This episode marks the first stage
of a battle which was to rage for nearly thirty years. It is difficult for us to conceive
the violence of these quarrels between the artists and the critics, all the more since
the paintings of Manet strike us today as being essentially in the tradition of the
greatest masters of the past, particularly of such painters as Frans Hals (p. 311,
Fig. 260) and Velazquez (p. 307, Fig. 257). Fig. 323 shows a painting by Manet of
the year 1869. It is a simple group of people on a balcony. We can see how the
painter enjoyed the contrast between the full light of the open air and the dark
which swallows up the forms in the interior. The heads of the ladies are not
modelled in the traditional manner, as we shall discover if we compare them with
Leonardo’s ‘Mona Lisa’ (p. 218, Fig. 187), Rubens’s portrait of his child (p. 298,
Fig. 250), or even Velazquez’s painting of the ‘Infant Prince’ (p. 307, Fig. 257) or
Gainsborough’s ‘Miss Haverfield’ (p. 351, Fig. 296). However different these
painters were in their methods they all wanted to create the impression of solid
bodies, and did so through the interplay of shadow and light. Compared with
theirs, Manet’s heads look flat. The lady in the background has not even got a
proper nose. We can well imagine why this treatment looked like sheer ignorance
to those not acquainted with Manet’s intentions. But the fact is that in the open air,
and in the full light of day, round forms sometimes do look flat, like mere coloured
patches. It was this effect which Manet wanted to explore. The consequence is that
as we stand before one of his pictures it looks more immediately real than any old
master. We have the illusion that we really stand face to face with this group on the
balcony. The general impression of the whole is not flat but, on the contrary, that
of real depth. One of the reasons for this striking effect is the bold colour of the
balcony railing. It is painted in a bright green which cuts across the composition
regardless of the traditional rules of colour harmonies. The result is that this railing
seems to stand out quite bodily in front of the scene, which thus recedes behind it.
The new theories did not concern only the treatment of colours in the open air
(‘Plein Air’), but also that of forms in movement. Fig. 324 shows one of Manet’s
lithographs — a method of reproducing drawings made directly on stone, which had
been invented early in the nineteenth century. At first sight, we may see nothing but
a confused scrawl. It is the picture of a horse-race. Manet wants us to gain the
impression of light, speed and movement by giving nothing but a bare hint of the
forms emerging out of the confusion. The horses are racing towards us at full speed
and the stands are packed with excited crowds. The example shows more clearly
than any how Manet refused to be influenced in his representation of form by his
knowledge. None of his horses has four legs. We simply do not see the four legs at
a momentary glance at such a scene. Nor can we take in the details of the spectators.
There is a famous painting by the Victorian master Frith called ‘Derby Day’ in
which the various types in the crowd, and the many incidents of the popular event.
325. manet: Monet working in his boat. Painted in 1874. Munich, Neue Pinakothek
Revolution in Permanence
391
are depicted with Dickensian humour. Such pictures derive their charm mainly
from the personal incidents we can imagine when studying the various groups at
our leisure. But we must realize that in actual life we can never take in all these
scenes at once. In any given moment we can only focus one spot with our eyes —
all the rest looks to us like a jumble of disconnected forms. We may know what they
are, but we do not see them. In this sense, Manet’s lithograph of a race-course is
really much more ‘true’ than that of the Victorian humorist. It transports us for
an instant to the bustle and excitement of the scene which the artist witnessed, and
of which he recorded only as much as he could vouch for having seen in that instant.
Among the painters who joined Manet and helped to develop these ideas was a
poor and dogged young man from Le Havre, Claude Monet (1840-1926). It was
Monet who urged his friends to abandon the studio altogether and never to paint
a single stroke except in front of the ‘motif’. He had a little boat fitted out as a
studio to allow him to explore the moods and effects of the river scenery. Manet,
who came to visit him, became convinced of the soundness of the younger man’s
methods and paid him a tribute by painting his portrait while at work in this open
air studio (Fig. 325). It is at the same time an exercise in the new manner advocated
by Monet. For Monet’s idea that all painting of nature must actually be finished
‘on the spot’ not only demanded a change of habits and a disregard of comfort. It
was bound to result in new technical methods. ‘Nature’ or ‘the motif’ changes
from minute to minute as a cloud passes over the sun or the wind breaks the reflec-
tion in the water. The painter who hopes to catch a characteristic aspect has no
leisure to mix and match his colours, let alone to apply them in layers on a brown
foundation as the old masters had done. He must fix them straight on to his canvas
in rapid strokes caring less for detail than for the general effect of the whole. It was
this lack of finish, this apparently slapdash approach which literally enraged the
critics. Even after Manet himself had gained a certain amount of public recognition
through his portraits and figure compositions the younger landscape painters
round Monet found it exceedingly difficult to have their unorthodox paintings
accepted for the ‘Salon’. Accordingly they banded together in 1874 and arranged
a show in the studio of a photographer. It contained a picture by Monet which the
catalogue described as ‘Impression: Sunrise’ — it was the picture of a harbour seen
through the morning mists. One of the critics found this title particularly ridi-
culous, and he referred to the whole group of artists as ‘The Impressionists’. He
wanted to convey that these painters did not proceed by sound knowledge, and
thought that the impression of a moment was sufficient to be called a picture. The
label stuck. Its mocking undertone was soon forgotten, just as the derogatory mean-
ing of terms like ‘Gothic’, ‘Baroque’ or ‘Mannerism’ is now forgotten. After a
time the group of friends themselves accepted the name Impressionists, and as
such they have been known ever since.
2B
392
Revolution in Permanence
327. MONET: The Gate St. Lazare in Paris. 1877. Paris, Louvre
It is interesting to read some of the press notices with which the first exhibitions
of the Impressionists were received. A respected critic wrote in 1876: ‘The Rue le
Peletier is a road of disasters. After the fire at the Opera, there is now yet another
disaster there. An exhibition has just been opened at Durand-Ruel which allegedly
contains paintings. I enter and my horrified eyes behold something terrible. Five
or six lunatics, among them a woman, have joined together and exhibited their
works. I have seen people rock with laughter in front of these pictures, but my
heart bled when I saw them. These would-be artists call themselves revolutionaries,
‘Impressionists”. They take a piece of canvas, colour and brush, daub a few
patches of colour on them at random, and sign the whole things with their name.
It is a delusion of the same kind as if the inmates of Bedlam picked up stones from
the wayside and imagined they had found diamonds.’
It was not only the technique of painting which so outraged the critics. It was
also the motifs these painters chose. In the past, painters were expected to look for
a corner of nature which was by general consent ‘picturesque’. Few people realize
that this demand was somewhat unreasonable. We call ‘picturesque’ such motifs
as we have seen in pictures before. If painters were to keep to these they would have
to repeat each other endlessly. It was Claude Lorrain who made Roman ruins
‘picturesque’ (p. 295, Fig. 248), and Jan van Goyen who turned Dutch windmills
into ‘motifs’ (p. 312, Fig. 262). Constable and Turner in England, each in his own
way, had discovered new motifs for art. Turner’s ‘Steamship in a Storm’ (p. 372,
Revolution in Permanence
393
Fig. 314) was as new in subject as it was in manner. Claude Monet knew Turner’s
works. He had seen them in London, where he stayed during the Franco-Prussian
war (1870-1), and they had confirmed him in his conviction that the magic effects
of light and air counted for more than the subject of a painting. Nevertheless, a
painting such as Fig. 327, which represents a Paris railway station, struck the
critics as sheer impudence. Here is a real ‘impression’ of a scene from everyday
life. Monet is not interested in the railway station as a place where human beings
meet or take leave — he is fascinated by the effect of light streaming through the
glass roof on to the clouds of steam, and by the forms of engines and carriages
emerging from the confusion. Yet there is nothing casual in this eye-witness
account by a painter. Monet balanced his tones and colours as deliberately as any
landscape painter of the past.
The painters of this young group of Impressionists applied their new principles
not only to landscape painting but to any scene of real life. Fig. 328 shows a painting
by Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) which represents an open-air dance in Paris,
painted in 1876. When Jan Steen (p. 319, Fig. 267) represented such a scene of
revelry, he was eager to depict the various humorous types of the people. Watteau,
in his dream scenes of aristocratic festivals (p. 341, Fig. 289) wanted to capture the
mood of a carefree existence. There is something of both in Renoir. He, too, has
an eye for the behaviour of the gay crowd and he, too, is enchanted by festive
beauty. But his main interest lies elsewhere. He wants to conjure up the gay medley
of bright colours and to study the effect of sunlight on the whirling throng. Even
compared to Manet’s painting of Monet’s boat, the picture looks ‘sketchy’ and
unfinished. Only the heads of some figures in the foreground are shown with a
certain amount of detail, but even they are painted in the most unconventional and
daring manner. The eyes and forehead of the sitting lady lie in the shadow while
the sun plays on her mouth and chin. Her bright dress is painted with loose strokes
of the brush, bolder even than those used by Frans Hals (p. 31 1, Fig. 260) or Velaz-
quez (p. 307, Fig. 257). But these are the figures we focus. Beyond, the forms are
increasingly dissolved in sunlight and air. We are reminded of the way in which
Francesco Guardi (p. 333, Fig. 280) conjured up the figures of his Venetian oarsmen
with a few patches of colour. After the lapse of more than seventy years it is hard
for us to understand why these pictures aroused such a storm of derision and
indignation. We realize without difficulty that the apparent sketchiness has nothing
whatever to do with carelessness but is the outcome of great artistic wisdom. If
Renoir had painted in every detail, the picture would look dull and lifeless. We
remember that a similar conflict had faced artists once before, in the fifteenth
century, when they had first discovered how to mirror nature. We remember that
the very triumphs of naturalism and of perspective had led to their figures looking
somewhat rigid and wooden, and that it was only the genius of Leonardo that over-
394
Revolution in Permanence
came this difficulty by letting the forms intentionally merge into dark shadows —
the device that was called ‘ sfurnato ’ (p. 218, Fig. 187). It was their discovery that
dark shadows of the kind Leonardo used for modelling do not occur in sunlight
and open air, which barred this traditional way out to the Impressionists. Hence,
they had to go farther in the intentional blurring of outlines than any previous
generation had gone. They knew that the human eye is a marvellous instrument.
You need only give it the right hint and it builds up for you the whole form which
it knows to be there. But one must know how to look at such paintings. The people
who first visited the Impressionist exhibition obviously poked their noses into the
pictures and saw nothing but a confusion of casual brush-strokes. That is why they
thought these painters must be mad.
Faced with such paintings as Fig. 329 in which one of the oldest and most
methodical champions of the movement, Camille Pissarro (1830-1903), evoked the
‘impression ’ of a Paris boulevard in sunshine, these outraged people would ask : ‘If
I walk along the boulevard — do I look like this ? Do I lose my legs, my eyes and
my nose and turn into a shapeless blob ? ’ Once more it was their knowledge of what
‘belongs’ to a man which interfered with their judgement of what we really see.
It took some time before the public learned that to appreciate an Impressionist
painting one has to step back a few yards, and enjoy the miracle of seeing these
puzzling patches suddenly fall into place and come to life before our eyes. To
achieve this miracle, and to transfer the actual visual experience of the painter to
the beholder, was the true aim of the Impressionists.
Revolution in Permanence
395
T ■ *•' « r- v
329. pissarro: The Boulevard Montmartre. 1897. Washington, National Gallery of Art
The feeling of a new freedom and a new power which these artists had must
have been truly exhilarating; it must have compensated them for much of the
derision and hostility they encountered. Suddenly the whole world offered fit
subjects to the painter’s brush. Wherever he discovered a beautiful combination
of tones, an interesting configuration of colours and forms, a satisfying and gay
patchwork of sunlight and coloured shades, he could set down his easel and try to
transfer his impression on to the canvas. All the old bogeys of ‘dignified subject-
matter’, of ‘balanced compositions’, of ‘correct drawing’ were laid to rest. The
artist was responsible to no one but his own sensibilities for what he painted and
how he painted it.
Perhaps painters would not have achieved this freedom so quickly and thorou ghl y
had it not been for two allies which helped people of the nineteenth century to see
the world with a different eye. One of these allies was photography. In the early
days this invention had mainly been used for portraits. Very long exposures were
necessary, and people who sat for their photographs had to be propped up in a
rigid posture to be able to keep still so long. The development of the portable
camera, and of the snapshot, began during the same years which also saw the rise
39 6 Revolution in Permanence
of Impressionist painting. The camera helped to discover the charm of the fortui-
tous view and of the unexpected angle. Moreover, the development of photography
was bound to push artists further on their way of exploration and experiment.
There was no need for painting to perform a task which a mechanical device could
perform better and more cheaply. We must not forget that in the past the art of
painting served a number of utilitarian ends. It was used to record the likeness of a
notable person or the view of a country house. The painter was a man who could
defeat the transitory nature of things and preserve the aspect of any object for
posterity. We should not know what the dodo looked like, had not a Dutch seven-
teenth-century painter used his skill in portraying a specimen shortly before these
birds became extinct. Photography in the nineteenth century was about to take over
this function of pictorial art. It was a blow to the position of artists, as serious as
had been the abolition of religious images by Protestantism (p. 274). Before that
invention nearly every self-respecting person sat for his portrait at least once in
his lifetime. Now people rarely underwent this ordeal unless they wanted to oblige
and help a painter-friend. So it came about that artists were increasingly compelled
to explore regions where photography could not follow them. In fact, modern art
would hardly have become what it is without the impact of this invention.
The second ally which the Impressionists found in their adventurous quest for
new motifs and new colour-schemes was the Japanese colour-print. The art of
Japan had developed out of Chinese art (p. 108) and had continued along these lines
for nearly a thousand years. In the eighteenth century, however, perhaps under the
influence of European prints, Japanese artists had abandoned the traditional motifs
of Far Eastern art, and had chosen scenes from low life as a subject for coloured
woodcuts which combined great boldness of invention with masterly technical per-
fection. Japanese connoisseurs did not think very highly of these cheap products.
They preferred the austere traditional manner. When Japan was forced, in the
middle of the nineteenth century, to enter into trade relations with Europe and
America, these prints were often used as wrappings and paddings, and could be
picked up cheaply in tea-shops. Artists of Manet’s circle were the first to appreciate
their beauty, and to collect them eagerly. Here they found a tradition unspoilt by
those academic rules and cliches which the French painters strove to get rid of.
The Japanese prints helped them to see how much of the European conventions
still remained with them without their having noticed it. The Japanese relished
every unexpected and unconventional aspect of the world. Their master, Hokusai
(1760-1849), would represent the mountain Fujiyama seen as by chance behind a
scaffolding (Fig. 330); Utamaro (1753-1806) would not hesitate to show some of
his figures cut off by the margin of a print or a curtain (Fig. 331). It was this daring
disregard of an elementary rule of European painting that struck the Impressionists.
They discovered in this rule a last hide -out of the ancient domination of know-
Revolution in Permanence
397
330. hokusai: The Fuji seen behind a cistern.
Coloured woodcut from the Hundred Viezvs of the Fuji
published in 1834
ledge over vision. Why should a painting always show the whole of a relevant part
of each figure of a scene ? The painter who was most deeply impressed by these
possibilities was Edgar Degas (1834-1917). Degas was a little older than Monet and
Renoir. He belonged to the generation of Manet and, like him, kept somewhat aloof
from the Impressionist group though he was in sympathy with most of their aims.
Degas was passionately interested in design and draughtsmanship. In his portraits
(Fig. 333) he wanted to bring out the impression of space and of solid forms
seen from the most unexpected angles. That is also why he liked to take his
331. utamaro: Counting House, evening. Coloured woodcut about 1800
398
Revolution in Permanence
332. degas: ‘Awaiting the Cue'. Pastel. 1879. New York, Private Collection
subjects from the ballet rather than from out-door scenes. Watching rehearsals.
Degas had an opportunity of seeing bodies in all attitudes and from all sides. Look-
ing down on to the stage from above, he would see the girls dancing, or resting, and
would study the intricate foreshortening and the effect of stage-lighting on the
modelling of the human form. Fig. 332 shows one of the pastel sketches made by
Degas. The arrangement could not be more casual in appearance. Of some of the
dancers we see only the legs, of some only the body. Only one figure is seen com-
plete, and that in a posture which is intricate and difficult to read. We see her from
above, her head bent forward, her left hand clasping her ankle, in a state of complete
relaxation. There is no story in Degas’s pictures. He was not interested in the
balleteuses because they were pretty girls. He did not seem to care for their moods.
He looked at them with the same dispassionate objectivity with which the Im-
pressionists looked at the landscape around them. What mattered to him was the
interplay of light and shade on the human form, and the way in which he could
suggest movement or space. He proved to the academic world that, far from being
incompatible with perfect draughtsmanship, the new principles of the young artists
were posing new problems which only the most consummate master of design
could solve.
The main principles of the new movement could find full expression only in
painting, but sculpture, too, was soon drawn into the battle for or against ‘modern-
ism’. The great French sculptor Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) was bom in the same
Revolution in Permanence
399
333. degas: Uncle and Niece. About 1875. Chicago Art Institute
year as Monet. As he was an ardent student of classical statues and of Michelangelo
there need have been no fundamental conflict between him and traditional art. In
fact, Rodin soon became an acknowledged master, and enjoyed a public fame as
great as, if not greater than, that of any other artist of his time. But even his works
were the object of violent quarrels among the critics, and were often lumped together
with those of the Impressionist rebels. The reason may become clear if we look at
one of his portraits (Fig. 326). Like the Impressionists, Rodin despised the outward
appearance of ‘finish’. Like them, he preferred to leave something to the imagination
of the beholder. Sometimes he even left part of the stone standing to give the
impression that his figure was just emerging and taking shape. To the average
public this seemed to be an irritating eccentricity if not sheer laziness. Their
objections were the same as those which had been raised against Tintoretto (p. 272).
To them artistic prefection still meant that everything should be neat and polished.
In disregarding these petty conventions Rodin helped to assert the artist’s right to
declare his work finished when he had reached his artistic aim. As no one could say
that his procedure resulted from ignorance, his influence did much to pave the way
for the acceptance of Impressionism outside the narrow circle of its French admirers.
400
Revolution in Permanence
334. whistler: ‘ Arrangement in Grey and Black ' (portrait of the artist's mother).
1871. Paris, Louvre
The movement of Impressionism had made Paris the artistic centre of Europe.
Artists from all over the world came there to study, and carried away with them the
new discoveries, and also the new attitude of the artist as a rebel against the
prejudices and conventions of the bourgeois world. One of the most influential
apostles of this gospel outside France was the American James MacNeill Whistler
(1834-1903). Whistler had taken part in the first battle of the new movement; he
had exhibited with Manet in the Salon of the Rejected in 1863, and he shared the
enthusiasm of his painter colleagues for Japanese prints. He was not an Impressionist
in the strict sense of the word, any more than was Degas or Rodin, for his main
concern was not with the effects of light and colour but rather with the composition
of delicate patterns. What he had in common with the Paris painters was his con-
tempt for the interest the public showed in sentimental anecdotes. He stressed the
point that what mattered in painting was not the subject but the way in which it
was translated into colours and forms. One of Whistler’s most famous paintings,
perhaps one of the most popular paintings ever made, is the portrait of his mother
(Fig. 334). It is characteristic that the title under which Whistler exhibited this
painting in 1871 was ‘Arrangement in grey and black’. He shrank from any sug-
Revolution in Permanence
401
335. whistler: Nocturne in Blue and Silver:
Old Battersea Bridge. About 1872. London, Tate Gallery
gestion of ‘literary’ interest or sentimentality. Actually the harmony of forms and
colours at which he aimed is in no contradiction with the feeling of the subject-
matter. It is the careful balance of simple forms that gives the picture its restful
quality, and the subdued tones of its ‘grey and black ranging from the lady’s hair
and dress to the wall and setting, enhance the expression of resigned loneliness
which gives the painting its wide appeal. It is strange to realize that the painter
of this sensitive and gentle picture was notorious for his provocative manner and
his exercises in what he called ‘the gentle art of making enemies’. He had settled
in London and felt called upon to fight the battle for modem art almost single-
handed. His habit of giving paintings names which struck people as eccentric, his
disregard of academic convention, brought upon him the wrath of John Ruskin,
the great critic who had championed Turner and the Pre-Raphaelites. In 1877
Whistler exhibited night-pieces in the Japanese manner which he called ‘Nocturnes ’
(Fig. 335), asking 200 guineas for each. Ruskin wrote : ‘I have never expected to hear
a coxcomb ask two hundred guineas for flinging a pot of paint in the public’s face’.
Whistler sued him for libel, and the case once more brought out the deep cleavage
that separated the public’s point of view from that of the artist. The question of
402 Revolution in Permanence
‘finish’ was promptly trotted out, and Whistler was cross-examined as to whether
he really asked that enormous sum ‘for two days’ work’, to which he replied: ‘No,
I ask it for the knowledge of a lifetime
It is strange to reflect how much the opponents in this unfortunate trial really
had in common. Both were deeply dissatisfied with the ugliness and squalor of their
surroundings. But while Ruskin, the older man, hoped to lead his countrymen to a
greater awareness of beauty by an appeal to their moral sense, Whistler became a
leading figure in the so-called ‘aesthetic movement’ which tried to make out that
artistic sensibility is the only thing in life worth taking seriously. Both these views
gained in importance as the nineteenth century drew to its close.
336. The rejected painter exclaiming: ‘And that they have turned
down, the ignorant fools !’ Lithograph by daumier, 1859, ridiculing
the pretensions of the new ‘realistic’ school
CHAPTER 26 • IN SEARCH OF NEW STANDARDS
The Late Nineteenth Century
A house zvithout a 'style*: 540 Fairoaks Avenue , Oakpark, Illinois .
Designed by frank lloyd wright in 1902
S UPERFICIALLY, the end of the nineteenth century was a period of
great prosperity and even complacency. But the artists and writers who felt
themselves outsiders were increasingly dissatisfied with the aims and methods
of the art that pleased the public. Architecture provided the easiest target for their
attacks. Building had developed into an empty routine. We remember how the
large blocks of flats, factories and public buildings of the vastly expanding cities
were erected in a motley of styles which lacked any relation to the purpose of the
building. Often it seemed as if the engineers had first erected a structure to suit the
natural requirements of the building, and a bit of ‘Art’ had then been pasted on to
the facade in the form of ornament taken from one of the pattern-books on the
‘historical style’. It is strange how long the majority of architects were satisfied
with this procedure. The public demanded these columns, pilasters, cornices and
mouldings, so these architects provided them. But towards the end of the nineteenth
century an increasing number of people became aware of the absurdity of this
fashion. In England, in particular, critics and artists were unhappy about the
general decline in craftsmanship caused by the Industrial Revolution, and hated
the very sight of these cheap and tawdry machine-made imitations of ornament
which once had had a meaning and a nobility of its own. Men like John Ruskin
4°4 In Search of New Standards
and William Morris dreamt of a thorough reform of the arts and crafts, and the
replacement of cheap mass-production by conscientious and meaningful handiwork.
The influence of their criticism was very widespread even though the humble handi-
crafts which they advocated, proved, under modern conditions, to be the greatest
of luxuries. Their propaganda could not possibly abolish industrial mass-produc-
tion, but it helped to open people’s eyes to the problems this had raised, and to
spread a taste for the genuine, simple and ‘homespun’.
Morris and Ruskin had still hoped that the regeneration of art could be brought
about by a return to medieval conditions. But many artists saw that this was an
impossibility. They longed for a ‘New Art’ based on a new feeling for design and
for the possibilities inherent in each material. This banner of a new art or Art
nouveau was raised in the eighteen-nineties. Architects experimented with new
types of ornament and new types of material. As a measure of the dissatisfaction
which existed at that time, these experiments are still interesting. But it was not
from them that the architecture of the twentieth century was to arise. The future
belonged to those who decided to begin afresh and to rid themselves of this pre-
occupation with style or ornament, were it old or new.
Among the young architects of the eighteen-nineties who decided on this revolu-
tionary course was the American Frank Lloyd Wright (born in 1869). Wright saw
that what mattered in a house was the rooms and not the facade. If it was commo-
dious and well planned inside, and suited to the requirements of the owner, it was
sure also to present an acceptable view from the outside. To us this may not seem a
very revolutionary point of view, but in fact it was, for it led Wright to discard all
the old shibboleths of building, especially the traditional demand for strict sym-
metry. Fig. 337 shows one of Wright’s first country houses. He has swept away all
the usual trimmings, the mouldings and cornices, and built the house entirely to
suit the plan. Yet Wright does not look upon himself as an engineer. He believes in
what he calls ‘Organic Architecture ’, by which he means that a house must grow out
of the needs of the people and the character of the country, like a living organism.
The feeling of uneasiness and dissatisfaction with the achievements of nineteenth-
century art, which took hold of some painters towards the end of the period, is less
easy to explain. Yet it is important that we should understand its roots, because it
was out of this feeling that there grew the various movements which are now usually
called ‘Modern Art’. Some people may consider the Impressionists the first of the
moderns, because they defied certain rules of painting as taught in the academies.
But it is well to remember that the Impressionists did not differ in their aims from
the traditions of art that had developed since the discovery of nature in the Re-
naissance. They, too, wanted to paint nature as we see it, and their quarrel with
the conservative masters was not so much over the aim as over the means of
achieving it. Their exploration of colour reflexes, their experiments with the effect
In Search of New Standards 405
of loose brush work, aimed at creating an even more perfect illusion of the visual
impression. It was only in Impressionism, in fact, that the conquest of nature had
become complete, that everything that presented itself to the painter’s eye could
become the motif of a picture, and that the real world in all its aspects became a
worthy object of the artist’s study. Perhaps it was just this complete triumph of
their methods which made some artists hesitate to accept them. It seemed, for a
moment, as if all the problems of an art aiming at the imitation of the visual im-
pression had been solved, and as if nothing was to be gained by pursuing these
aims any further.
But we know that in art one problem need only be solved for a host of new ones to
appear in its stead. Perhaps the first who had a clear feeling of the nature of these
new problems was an artist who still belonged to the same generation as the
Impressionist masters. He was Paul Cezanne (1839-1906), who was only seven
years younger than Manet, and even two years older than Renoir. In his youth
Cezanne took part in the Impressionist exhibitions, but he was so disgusted by the
reception accorded them that he withdrew to his native town of Aix where he
studied the problems of his art, undisturbed by the clamour of the critics. He was
a man of independent means and regular habits. He was not dependent on finding
buyers for his pictures. Thus he could dedicate his whole life to the solution of the
artistic problems he had set himself, and could apply the most exacting standards
to his own work. Outwardly, he lived a life of tranquillity and leisure, but he was
constantly engaged in a passionate struggle to achieve in his painting that ideal of
artistic perfection after which he strove. He was no friend of theoretical talk, but
as his fame among his few admirers grew 7 he did sometimes try to explain to them
in a few words what he wanted to do. One of these famous remarks was that he
aimed at painting ‘Poussin from nature’. What he wanted to say was that the old
classical masters such as Poussin had achieved a wonderful balance and perfection
in their work. A painting like Poussin’s ‘Et in Arcadia ego’ (p. 294, Fig. 247)
presents a wonderfully harmonious pattern in which one form seems to answer the
other. We feel that everything is in its place, and nothing is casual or vague. Each
form stands out clearly and one can feel that it is a firm solid body. The whole has
a natural simplicity which looks restful and calm. Cezanne aimed at an art which
had something of this grandeur and serenity. But he did not think that it could be
achieved any longer by the methods of Poussin. The old masters, after all, had
achieved their balance and solidity at a price. They did not feel bound to respect
nature as they saw it. Their pictures are rather arrangements of forms they had
learned from the study of classical antiquity. Even the impression of space and
solidity they achieved through the application of firm traditional rules rather than
through looking at each object anew. Cezanne agreed with his friends among the
Impressionists that these methods of academic art were contrary to nature. He
40 6 In Search of New Standards
admired the new discoveries in the field of colour and modelling. He, too, wanted
to surrender to his impressions, to paint the forms and colours he saw, not those he
knew about or had learned about. But he felt uneasy about the direction painting
had taken. The Impressionists were true masters in painting ‘nature’. But was that
really enough ? Where was that striving for an harmonious design, the achievement
of solid simplicity and perfect balance which had marked the greatest paintings of
the past ? The task was to paint ‘from nature ’, to make use of the discoveries of
the Impressionist masters, and yet to recapture the sense of order and necessity
that distinguished the art of Poussin.
In itself the problem was not new to art. We remember that the conquest of
nature and the invention of perspective in the Italian Quattrocento had endangered
the lucid arrangements of medieval paintings, and had created a problem which
only Raphael’s generation had been able to solve. Now the same question was
repeated on a different plane. The dissolution of firm outlines in flickering light
and the discovery of coloured shadows by the Impressionists had once again posed
a new problem: how could these achievements be preserved without leading to a
loss of clarity and order? To put it into simpler language: Impressionist pictures
tended to be brilliant but messy. Cezanne abhorred messiness. Yet he did not want
to return to the academic conventions of drawing and shading to create the illusion
of solidity any more than he wanted to return to ‘composed’ landscapes to achieve
harmonious designs. He was faced with an even more urgent issue when he pon-
dered the right use of colour. Cezanne longed for strong, intense colours as much
as he longed for lucid patterns. Medieval artists, we remember (p. 130), were able to
satisfy this same desire freely because they were not bound to respect the actual
appearance of things. As art had returned to the observation of nature, however,
the pure and shining colours of medieval stained glass or book illuminations had
given way to those mellow mixtures of tones with which the greatest painters
among the Venetians (p. 238) and the Dutch (p. 317) contrived to suggest light
and atmosphere. The Impressionists had given up mixing the pigments on the
palette and had applied them separately on to the canvas in small dabs and dashes to
render the flickering reflections of an ‘open-air’ scene. Their pictures were much
brighter in tone than any of their predecessors but the result did not yet satisfy
Cezanne. He wanted to convey the rich and unbroken tones that belong to nature
under southern skies, but he found that a simple return to the painting of whole
areas in pure primary colours endangered the illusion of reality. Pictures painted in
this manner resemble flat patterns and fail to give the impression of depth. Thus
Cezanne seemed to be caught up in contradictions all round. His wish to be abso-
lutely faithful to his sense impressions in front of nature seemed to clash with his
desire to turn — as he said — ‘Impressionism into something more solid and endur-
ing, like the art of the Museums ’. No wonder that he was often near despair, that he
338. cezanne: Rocky scenery near Aix. Painted about 1886. London, Tate Gallery
339* VAN gogh: The Sun rising behind Mont Majours. Drawing made m 1888. Winterthur, Oscar Reinhart Collection
In Search of New Standards 409
slaved at his canvas and never ceased to experiment. The real wonder is that he
succeeded, that he achieved the apparently impossible in his pictures. If art were
a matter of calculation it could not have been done; but of course it is not. This
balance and harmony about which artists worry so much is not the same as the
balance of machines. It suddenly ‘happens’, and no one quite knows how or why.
Much has been written about the secret of Cezanne’s art. All kinds of explanations
have been suggested of what he wanted and what he achieved. But these explana-
tions remain crude; sometimes they even sound self-contradictory. But even if we
get impatient with the critics there are always the pictures to convince us. And the
best advice here and always is ‘go and look at the pictures in the original’.
Even our illustrations, however, should at least convey something of the great-
ness of Cezanne’s triumph. The landscape with Mont Sainte-Victoire in southern
France (Fig. 340) is bathed in light and yet firm and solid. It presents a lucid
pattern and yet gives the impression of great depth and distance. There is a sense
of order and repose in the way Cezanne marked the horizontal of the viaduct and
road in the centre and the verticals of the house in the foreground but nowhere
do we feel that it is an order which Cezanne has imposed on nature. Even his
brush-strokes are so arranged as to fall in with the main lines of the design and to
strengthen the feeling of natural harmony. The way in which Cezanne altered the
direction of his brush-stroke without ever resorting to outline drawing can also be
seen in our Fig. 338 which shows how deliberately the artist counteracted the effect
of the flat pattern which might have resulted in the upper half by emphasizing the
solid tangible forms of the rocks in the foreground. His wonderful portrait of his
wife (Fig. 342) shows how greatly Cezanne’s concentration on simple, clearcut
forms contributes to the impression of poise and tranquillity. Compared with such
calm masterpieces the works of the Impressionists such as Manet’s portrait of
Monet (p. 389, Fig. 325) often look like merely witty improvisations.
Admittedly there are paintings by Cezanne which are not so easily understood.
In an illustration a still life such as Fig. 341 may not look too promising. How
awkward it seems if we compare it with the assured treatment of a similar subject
by the Dutch seventeenth-century master Kalf (p. 323, Fig. 271) ! The fruit-bowl is
so clumsily drawn that its foot does not even rest in the middle. The table not only
slopes from left to right, it also looks as if it were tilted forward. Where the Dutch
master excelled in the rendering of soft and fluffy surfaces Cezanne gives us a
patchwork of colour dabs which make the napkin look as if it were made of tinfoil.
Small wonder that Cezanne’s paintings were at first derided as pathetic daubs. But
the reason for this apparent clumsiness is not far to seek. Cezanne had ceased to
take any of the traditional methods of painting for granted. He had decided to start
from scratch as if no painting had been done before him. The Dutch master had
painted his still life to display his stupendous virtuosity. Cezanne had chosen his
2C*
4io
In Search of New Standards
340. CEZANNE: The Mont Sainte-Victoire seen from Bellevue, painted about 1885,
Merion, U.S.A., Barnes Foundation
motifs to study some specific problems that he wanted to solve. We know that he
was fascinated by the relation of colour to modelling. A brightly coloured solid
round such as an apple was an ideal motif to explore this question. We know that
he was interested in the achievement of a balanced design. That is why he stretched
the bowl to the left so as to fill in a void. As he wanted to study all shapes on the
table in their relationship he simply tilted it forward to make them come into view.
Perhaps the example shows how it happened that Cezanne became the father of
‘modem art’. In his tremendous efforts to achieve a sense of depth without
sacrificing the brightness of colours, to achieve an orderly arrangement without
sacrificing the sense of depth — in all these struggles and gropings there was one
thing he was prepared to sacrifice if need be — the conventional ‘correctness’ of
outline. He was not out to distort nature; but he did not mind very much if it
became distorted in some minor detail provided this helped him to obtain the
desired effect. Brunelleschi’s invention of ‘linear perspective’ did not interest him
overmuch. He threw it overboard when he found that it hampered him in his work.
After all, this scientific perspective had been invented to help painters to create the
illusion of space — as Masaccio had done in his fresco in Sta. Maria Novella (p. 164,
Fig. 149). Cezanne did not aim at creating an illusion. He rather wanted to con-
vey the feeling of solidity and depth, and he found he could do that without
In Search of New Standards 41 1
conventional draughtsmanship. He hardly realized that this example of indifference
to ‘correct drawing’ would start a landslide in art.
In the winter of 1888, while Cezanne was painting his landscapes and still lifes in
Aix, there arrived in southern France another painter in search of the intense light
and colours of the south. He was a young and earnest Dutchman called Vincent
van Gogh. Van Gogh was born in Holland in 1853, the son of a vicar. He was a
deeply religious man who had worked as a lay preacher in England and among
Belgian miners. He had been profoundly impressed by the art of Millet and its
social message, and decided to become a painter himself. A younger brother, Theo,
who worked in an art-dealer’s shop, introduced him to Impressionist painters. This
brother was a remarkable man. Though he was poor himself, he always gave un-
grudgingly to the older Vincent and even financed his journey to Arles in southern
France. Vincent hoped that if he could work there undisturbed for a number of
years he might be able one day to sell his pictures and repay his generous brother.
In his self-chosen solitude in Arles, Vincent confided in his letters to Theo, which
read like a continuous diary, all his ideas and hopes. These letters, by a humble
and almost self-taught artist who had no idea of the fame he was to achieve, are
among the most moving and exciting in all literature. In them we can feel the
341. cezanne: Still Life . About 1878. Paris, R. Lecomte
412
In Search of New Standards
342. cezanne: Portrait of the Artist's Wife . About 1885.
Philadelphia, H. P. Macllhcnny
artist’s sense of mission, his struggle and triumphs, his desperate loneliness and
longing for companionship, and we become aware of the immense strain under
which he worked with feverish energy. After less than a year, in December 1888,
he broke down and had an attack of insanity. In May 1889 he went into a mental
asylum, but he still had lucid intervals during which he continued to paint. The
agony lasted for another fourteen months. In July 1890 Van Gogh put an end
to his life. He died younger even than Raphael. His career as a painter had not
lasted more than ten years — the paintings on which his fame rests were all painted
during three years which were interrupted by crises and despair. Most people nowa-
days know some of these paintings ; the sunflowers, the empty chair, the cypresses
and some of the portraits have become popular in coloured reproductions and can
be seen in many a simple room. That is exactly what Van Gogh wanted. He wanted
his pictures to have the direct and strong effect of the coloured Japanese prints he
admired so much. He longed for an unsophisticated art which would not only
appeal to the rich connoisseurs but could give joy and consolation to every human
being. Nevertheless this is not quite the whole story. No reproduction is perfect.
In Search of New Standards
413
343. VAN gogh: Landscape zvith Cypresses near Arles. 1888. London, Tate Gallery
The cheaper ones make Van Gogh’s pictures look cruder than they really are, and
one may sometimes tire of them. Whenever that happens, it is quite a revelation to
return to Van Gogh’s original works and to discover how subtle and deliberate he
could be even in his strongest effects.
For Van Gogh, too, had absorbed the lessons of Impressionism. He experimented
with the use of bright, pure colours which he did not mix on the palette but applied
to the canvas in small strokes or dots, relying on the beholder’s eye which would
see them all together. Some of the younger painters in Paris had built up a whole
scientific theory on this type of ‘pointillisme’ which should heighten the intensity
of colour effects. Van Gogh liked the technique of painting in dots and strokes, but
under his hand it became something rather different from what the Impressionists
had meant it to be. For Van Gogh used the individual brush-strokes not only to
break up the colour but also to convey his own excitement. In one of his letters from
Arles he describes his states of inspiration when ‘the emotions are sometimes so
strong that one works without being aware of working . . . and the strokes come
with a sequence and coherence like words in a speech or a letter’. The comparison
could not be clearer. In such moments he painted as other men write. Just as the
form of the writing in a letter, the traces left by the pen on the paper, impart some-
thing of the gestures of the writer, so that we feel instinctively when a letter was
414 /« Search of New Standards
written under great stress of emotion — so the brush-strokes of Van Gogh tell us
something of the state of his mind. No artist before him had ever used this means
with such consistency and effect. We remember that there is bold and loose brush-
work in earlier paintings, in works by Tintoretto (p. 285, Fig. 241), by Hals
(p. 31 1, Fig. 260), and by Manet (p. 389, Fig. 325), but in these it rather conveys
the artist’s sovereign mastery, his quick perception and magic capacity of conjuring
up a vision. In Van Gogh they help to convey the exaltation of the artist’s mind.
Van Gogh liked to paint objects and scenes which gave this new means full scope —
motifs in which he could draw as well as paint with his brush, and lay on the colour
thick just as a writer who underlines his words. That is why he was the first painter
to discover the beauty of stubbles, hedgerows and cornfields, of the gnarled branches
of olive trees and the dark, flamelike shapes of the cypress (Fig. 343).
Van Gogh was in such a frenzy of creation that he felt the urge not only to
draw the radiant sun itself (Fig. 339) but also to paint humble, restful and homely
things which no one had ever thought of as being worthy of the artist’s attention.
He painted his narrow lodgings in Arles (Fig. 344), and what he wrote about this
painting to his brother explains his intentions wonderfully well:
‘I had a new idea in my head and here is the sketch to it . . . this time it’s just
simply my bedroom, only here colour is to do everything, and, giving by its simpli-
fication a grander style to things, is to be suggestive here of rest or of sleep in general.
In a word, to look at the picture ought to rest the brain or rather the imagination.
‘The walls are pale violet. The ground is of red tiles. The wood of the bed and
chairs is the yellow of fresh butter, the sheets and pillows very light greenish lemon.
The coverlet scarlet. The window green. The toilet-table orange, the basin blue.
The doors lilac.
‘And that is all — there is nothing in this room with closed shutters. The broad
lines of the furniture, again, must express inviolable rest. Portraits on the walls,
and a mirror and a towel and some clothes.
‘The frame — as there is no white in the picture — will be white. This by way of
revenge for the enforced rest I was obliged to take.
‘I shall work at it again all day, but you see how simple the conception is. The
shadows, and the shadows thrown, are suppressed, it is painted in free flat washes
like the Japanese prints. . . .’
It is clear that Van Gogh was not mainly concerned with correct representa-
tion. He used colours and forms to convey what he felt about the things he painted,
and what he wished others to feel. He did not care much for what he called ‘stereo-
scopic reality’, that is to say the photographically exact picture of nature. He
would exaggerate and even change the appearance of things if this suited his
aim. Thus he had arrived by a different road at a similar juncture to that at
which Cezanne found himself during these same years. Both took the momentous
In Search of New Standards 415
344. VAN GOGH: The Artist's Room in Arles. 1888. Kobe, Prince Matsugata
step of deliberately abandoning the aim of painting as an ‘imitation of nature’.
Their reasons, of course, were different. When Cezanne painted a still life, he
wanted to explore the relationship of forms and colours, and took in only so much
of ‘correct perspective’ as he happened to need for his particular experiment. Van
Gogh wanted his painting to express what he felt, and if distortion helped him to
achieve this aim he would use distortion. Both of them had arrived at this point
without wanting to overthrow the old standards of art. They did not pose as
‘revolutionaries’; they did not want to shock the complacent critics. Both of them,
in fact, had almost given up hope of anybody paying attention to their pictures —
they just worked on because they had to.
It was rather different with a third artist who was also to be found in southern
France in 1888 — Paul Gauguin (1848-1903). Van Gogh had a great desire for com-
panionship; he dreamed of a brotherhood of artists such as the Pre-Raphaelites
had founded in England (p. 384), and he persuaded Gauguin, who was five years
older, to join him in Arles. As a man, Gauguin was very different from Van Gogh.
He had none of his humility and sense of mission. On the contrary, he was proud
and ambitious. But there were some points of contact between the two. Like Van
Gogh, Gauguin had started painting comparatively late in life (he had been a well-
to-do stockbroker), like him he was almost self-taught. The companionship of the
two, however, ended in disaster. Van Gogh, in a fit of madness, attacked Gauguin,
416 In Search of New Standards
who fled to Paris. Two years later, Gauguin left Europe altogether and went to one
of the proverbial ‘South Sea Islands’, Tahiti, in search of the simple life. For he
had more and more become convinced that art was in danger of becoming slick and
superficial, that all the cleverness and knowledge which had been accumulated in
Europe had deprived men of the greatest thing — strength and intensity of feeling,
and a direct way of expressing it.
Gauguin, of course, was not the first artist to have these qualms about civiliza-
tion. Ever since artists had become self-conscious about ‘style’ they felt distrustful
of conventions and impatient of mere skill. They longed for an art which did not
consist of tricks which can be learned, for a style which was no mere style, but
something strong and powerful like human passion. Delacroix had gone to Morocco
to look for more intense colours and a life of less restraint. The Pre-Raphaelites in
England hoped to find this directness and simplicity in the unspoilt art of the ‘Age
of Faith’. The Impressionists admired the Japanese, but theirs was a sophisti-
cated art compared with the intensity and simplicity for which Gauguin longed. At
first he studied peasant art, but it did not hold him for long. He needs must get
away from Europe and live among the natives of the South Seas as one of them, to
work out his own salvation. The works he brought back from there puzzled even
some of his former friends. They seemed so savage and primitive. That was just
what Gauguin wanted. He was proud to be called ‘barbarian’. Even his colour
345. gauguin: Two Tahitian Women , painted in 1897. London, Home House Trustees
In Search of New Standards 417
and draughtsmanship should be ‘barbaric’ to do justice to the unspoilt children of
nature he had come to admire during his stay on Tahiti. Looking at one of these
pictures today (Fig. 345) we may not quite succeed in recapturing this mood. We
have become used to much greater ‘savagery’ in art. And yet it is not difficult to
realize that Gauguin struck a new note. It is not only the subject-matter of his
pictures that is strange and exotic. He tried to enter into the spirit of the natives and
to look at things as they do. He studied the methods of native craftsmen and often
included representations of their works in his pictures. He strove to bring his own
portraits of the natives into harmony with this ‘primitive’ art. So he simplified the
outlines of forms and did not shrink from using large patches of strong colour.
Unlike Cezanne he did not mind if these simplified forms and colour schemes made
his pictures look flat. He gladly ignored the century-old problems of Western art
when he thought that this helped him to render the unspoilt intensity of nature’s
children. He may not always have fully succeeded in his aim of achieving directness
and simplicity. But his longing for it was as passionate and sincere as that of
Cezanne for a new harmony, and that of Van Gogh for a new message ; for Gauguin,
too, sacrificed his life to his ideal. He felt himself misunderstood in Europe and
decided to return to the South Sea Islands for good. After years of loneliness and
disappointment, he died there of ill-health and privation.
Cezanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin were three desperately lonely men who worked
on with little hope of ever being understood. But the problems of their art about
which they felt so strongly were seen by more and more artists of the younger
generation who found no satisfaction in the skill they acquired at the art schools.
They had learned how to represent nature, how to draw correctly and how to use
paint and brush : they had even absorbed the lessons of the Impressionist Revolu-
tion and become deft in conveying the flicker of sunlight and air. Some great artists
indeed persevered along this path, and championed these new methods in countries
where resistance against Impressionism was still strong. A small number, however,
felt that once the principle was acknowledged and the victory won they were left
with a feeling of emptiness. They, too, felt that in all these efforts to render nature
as we really see it something had gone out of art — something they desperately tried
to retrieve. We remember that Cezanne had felt that what had been lost was the
sense of order and balance; that the Impressionist preoccupation with the fleeting
moment had made them neglect the solid and enduring forms of nature. Van Gogh
had felt that by surrendering to their visual impressions, and by exploring nothing
but the optical qualities of light and colour, art was in danger of losing that intensity
and passion through which alone the artist can express his feeling to his fellow men.
Gauguin, finally, was altogether dissatisfied with life and art as he found them. He
longed for something much simpler and more direct and hoped to find it among the
primitives. What we call modern art grew out of these feelings of dissatisfaction;
418 In Search of New Standards
and the various solutions after which these three painters had been groping
became the ideals of three movements in modern art. Cezanne’s solution ultimately
led to Cubism which originated in France; Van Gogh’s to Expressionism which
found its main response in Germany; and Gauguin’s to the various forms of
Primitivism. However ‘mad’ these movements may seem at first sight, it is not
difficult to show that they were consistent attempts to escape from a deadlock in
which artists found themselves.
346. Van Gogh painting Sunflowers. Painted by gauguin in 1888.
Amsterdam, Municipal Museum
chapter 27 * EXPERIMENTAL ART
The Twentieth Century
347. The Style of modern engineering: The Rockefeller Center , New York City .
Architects: reinhard & hofmeister, corbett, harrison & macmurray,
hood & fouilhoux, harrison & fouilhoux. Completed in 1933
W HEN people talk about ‘Modem Art’, they usually think of a type
of art which has completely broken with the traditions of the past and
tries to do things no artist would have dreamed of before. Some like
the idea of progress and believe that art, too, must keep in step with the times.
Others prefer the slogan of ‘the good old days’, and think that modern art is all
wrong. But we have seen that the situation is really much more complex, and that
modern art no less than old art came into existence in response to certain definite
problems. Those who deplore the break in tradition would have to go back beyond
the French Revolution of 1789, and few would think this possible. It was then, as
we know, that artists had become self-conscious about styles, and had begun to
experiment and to launch new movements which usually raised a new ‘ism’ as a
battle-cry. Strangely enough, it was that branch of art which had suffered most from
the general confusion of tongues that succeeded best in creating a new and lasting
420 Experimental Art
style; modern architecture was slow in coming, bin its principles are now so firmly
established that few would still want to challenge them seriously. We remember
how the gropings for a new style in building had ended with the architects cutting
the Gordian knot, and throwing the whole idea of style overboard. At first it seemed
as if the engineers would take over. For, if Morris had been right in thinking that
the machine could never successfully emulate the work of human hands, the solution
was obviously to find out what the machine could do and to regulate our designs
accordingly. The architects of modern ‘sky-scrapers ’ (Fig. 347) are engineering firms.
To some, this principle seemed to be an outrage against taste and decency. In
doing away with all ornaments, the modern architects did, in fact, break with the
tradition of many centuries. The whole system of fictitious ‘orders’, developed
since the time of Brunelleschi, was swept aside and all the cobwebs of false mould-
ings, scrolls and pilasters brushed away. When people first saw these houses they
looked to them intolerably bare and naked. But after only a few years we have all
become accustomed to their appearance and have learned to enjoy the clean outlines
and simple forms of modern engineering styles. We owe this revolution in taste to
a few pioneers whose first experiments in the use of modern building materials
were often greeted with ridicule and hostility. Fig. 348 shows one of the experi-
mental buildings which became a storm-centre of propaganda for and against
modem architecture. It is the Bauhaus in Dessau, a school of architecture founded
by the German Walter Gropius (bom 1883) which was closed and abolished by the
National Socialists. It was built to prove that art and engineering need not remain
348. The Bauhaus , Dessau (Germany). Designed by WALTER GROPIUS in 1923
Experimental Art 421
estranged from each other as they had been in the nineteenth century; that, on the
contrary, each could benefit the other. The students at the school took part in the
designing of buildings and fittings. They were encouraged to use their imagination
and to experiment boldly yet never to lose sight of the purpose which their design
should serve. It was at this school that tubular steel chairs and similar furnishings
of our daily use were first invented. The theories for which the Bauhaus stood are
sometimes condensed in the slogan of ‘functionalism ’ — the belief that if something
is only designed to fit its purpose we can let beauty look after itself. There is cer-
tainly much truth in this belief. At any rate it has helped us to get rid of much
unnecessary and tasteless knick-knackery with which the nineteenth-century ideas of
Art had cluttered up our cities and our rooms. But like all slogans it really rests on
an oversimplification. Surely there are things which are functionally correct and yet
father ugly, or at least indifferent. The best works of modern architecture are
beautiful not only because they happen to fit the function for which they are built,
but because they were designed by men of tact and taste who knew how to make a
building fit for its purpose and yet ‘right’ for the eye. To discover these secret
harmonies a great deal of trial and error is needed. Architects must be free to
experiment with different proportions and different materials. Some of these
experiments may lead them into a blind alley, but the experience gained need not
be in vain for all that. No artist can always ‘play safe’, and nothing is more impor-
tant than to recognize the role that even apparently extravagant or eccentric experi-
ments have played in the development of new designs which we have now come to
take almost for granted.
In architecture, the value of bold inventions and innovations is fairly widely
recognized, but few people realize that the situation is similar in painting and
sculpture. Many who have no use for what they call ‘this ultra-modern stuff’ would
be surprised to learn how much of it has entered their lives already, and has helped
to mould their taste and their preferences. Forms and colour-schemes which were
developed some forty years ago by the ‘maddest’ of the ultra-modern rebels in
painting have become the common stock-in-trade of commercial art; and when
we meet them on posters, magazine covers or fabrics, they look quite normal to us.
It might even be said that modern art has found a new function in serving as
testing-ground for new ways of combining shapes and patterns.
But what should a painter experiment with and why can he not be content to
sit down before nature and paint it to the best of his abilities ? The answer seems
to be that art has lost its bearings because artists have discovered that the simple
demand that they should ‘paint what they see ’ is self-contradictory. This sounds
like one of the paradoxes with which modern artists and critics like to tease the
long-suffering public; but to those who have followed this book from the beginning
it should not be difficult to understand. We remember how the primitive artist used
422 Experimental Art
to build up, say, a face out of simple forms rather than copy a real face (p. 27,
Fig. 26); we have often looked back to the Egyptians and their method of repre-
senting in a picture all they knew rather than all they saw. Greek and Roman art
breathed life into these schematic forms; medieval art used them in turn for telling
the sacred story, Chinese art for contemplation. Neither was urging the artist to
‘paint what he saw’. This idea dawned only during the age of the Renaissance. At
first all seemed to go well. Scientific perspective, ‘ sfumato ’, Venetian colours,
movement and expression, were added to the artist’s means of representing the
world around him ; but every generation discovered that there were still unsuspected
‘pockets of resistance’, strongholds of conventions which made artists apply forms
they had learned rather than paint what they really saw. The nineteenth-century
rebels proposed to make a clean sweep of all these conventions; one after another
was tackled, till the Impressionists proclaimed that their methods allowed them to
render on the canvas the act of vision with ‘scientific accuracy’.
The paintings that resulted from this theory were very fascinating works of art,
but this should not blind us to the fact that the idea on which they were based was
only half true. We have come to realize more and more, since those days, that we
can never neatly separate what we see from what we know. A person who was born
blind, and who gains eyesight later on, must learn to see. With some self-discipline
and self-observation we can all find out for ourselves that what we call seeing is
invariably coloured and shaped by our knowledge (or belief) of what we see. This
becomes clear enough whenever the two are at variance. It happens that we make
mistakes in seeing. For example, we sometimes see a small object which is close
to our eyes as if it were a big mountain on the horizon, or a fluttering paper as if it
were a bird. Once we know we have made a mistake, we can no longer see it as we
did before. If we had to paint the objects concerned, we should have to use different
shapes and colours to represent them before and after our discovery. In fact, as soon
as we start to take a pencil and draw, the whole idea of surrendering passively to what
is called our sense impressions becomes really an absurdity. If we look out of the
window we can see the view in a thousand different ways. Which of them is our
sense impression ? But we must choose; we must start somewhere; we must build
up some picture of the house across the road and of the trees in front of it. Do what
we may, we shall always have to make a beginning with something like ‘conven-
tional’ lines or forms. The ‘Egyptian’ in us can be suppressed, but he can never be
quite defeated.
This, I think, is the difficulty which was dimly felt by the generation that wanted
to follow and surpass the Impressionists, which underlies the search for new
standards by artists of such uncompromising honesty as Cezanne, Van Gogh and
Gauguin, and which finally forced young artists to take up experimenting as a
means of finding a way out of the impasse.
Experimental Art
423
The methods called Expressionism are, perhaps, the easiest to explain in words.
The term itself may not be happily chosen, for we know that we are all expressing
ourselves in everything we do or leave undone, but the word became a convenient
label because of its easily remembered contrast to Impressionism, and as a label it
is quite useful. In one of his letters. Van Gogh had explained how he set about
painting the portrait of a friend who was very dear to him. The conventional
likeness was only the first stage. Having painted a ‘correct* portrait, he proceeded
to change the colours and the setting :
‘I exaggerate the fair colour of the hair, I take orange, chrome, lemon colour, and
behind the head I do not paint the trivial wall of the room but the Infinite. I make
a simple background out of the most intense and richest blue the palette will
yield. The blond luminous head stands out against this strong blue background
mysteriously like a star in the azure. Alas, my dear friend, the public will see nothing
but caricature in this exaggeration, but what does that matter to us ? ’
Van Gogh was right in saying that the method he had chosen could be compared
to that of the caricaturist. Caricature had always been ‘expressionist’, for the
caricaturist plays with the likeness of his victim, and distorts it to express just what
he feels about his fellow man. As long as these distortions of nature sailed under
the flag of humour nobody seemed to find them difficult to understand. Humorous
art was a field in which everything was permitted, because people did not approach
it with the prejudices they reserved for
Art with a capital A. But the idea of a
serious caricature, of an art which
deliberately changed the appearance
of things not to express a sense of
superiority, but maybe love, or ad-
miration, or fear, proved indeed a
stumbling block as Van Gogh had pre-
dicted. Yet there is nothing inconsistent
about it. It is the sober truth that our
feelings about things do colour the way
in which we see them and, even more,
the forms which we remember. Every-
one must have experienced how different
the same place may look when we are
happy and when we are sad.
Among the first artists to explore these
possibilities even further than Van Gogh
was the Norwegian painter Edvard
Munch (1863-1944). Fig. 349 shows a
349. munch: Shouting. Lithograph
published in 1895
q2.\ Experimental Art
350. barlach: Pity. Sculpture in wood. 1919
lithograph he made in 1895 which he called ‘Shouting’. It aims at expressing how
a sudden excitement transforms all our sense impressions. All the lines seem to lead
towards the one focus of the print — the shouting head. It looks as if all the scenery
shared in the anguish and excitement of that shout. The face of the shouting person
is indeed distorted like that of a caricature. The staring eyes and hollow chin recalls
a death’s head. Something terrible must have happened, and the print is all the
more disquieting because we shall never know what the shout meant.
What upset the public about expressionist art was, perhaps, not so much the fact
that nature had been distorted as that the result led away from beauty. That the
caricaturist may show up the ugliness of man was granted— it was his job. But that
352. picasso : Ceramic . First exhibited in 1948
Experimental Art 427
men who claimed to be serious artists should forget that, if they must change the
appearance of things, they should idealize them rather than make them ugly was
strongly resented. But Munch might have retorted that a shout of anguish is not
beautiful, and that it would be insincere only to look at the pleasing side of life.
For the expressionists felt so strongly about human suffering, poverty, violence
and passion, that they were inclined to think that the insistence on harmony and
beauty in art was only born out of a refusal to be honest. The art of the classical
masters, of a Raphael or Correggio, seemed to them insincere and hypocritical.
They wanted to face the stark facts of our existence, and to express their compassion
for the disinherited and the ugly. It became almost a point of honour with them
to avoid anything which smelt of prettiness and polish, and to shock the ‘bourgeois ’
out of his real or imagined complacency.
The expressionist movement found its most fertile soil in Germany where it, in
fact, succeeded in arousing the anger and vindictiveness of the ‘little man’. When
the National Socialists came to power, all modern art was banned and the greatest
leaders of the movement were either exiled or forbidden to work. This is the fate
which befell the expressionist sculptor Ernst Barlach (1870-1938) whose sculpture
‘Pity’ is shown in Fig. 350. There is a great intensity of expression in the simple
gesture of the old and bony hands of this beggar woman, and nothing is allowed to
divert our attention from this dominating theme. The woman has drawn her cloak
over her face, and the simplified form of her covered head increases the appeal to
our feelings. The question of whether we should call such a work ugly or beautiful
is as irrelevant here as it was in the case of Rembrandt (p. 318), of Griinewald
(p. 257), or of those medieval works which the expressionists most admired.
Among the painters who shocked the public by refusing to see only the bright
side of things was the Austrian Oskar Kokoschka (born 1886) whose first works
caused a storm of indignation when they were exhibited in Vienna in 1909. Fig. 353
shows one of these early paintings, a group of children at play. To us it looks
amazingly lifelike and convincing, but it is not hard to understand why this type
of portrait aroused such opposition. If we think back to the children’s portraits
of such great artists as Rubens (p. 298), Velazquez (p. 307), Gainsborough (p. 351)
or Reynolds (p. 350), we realize the reason for the shock. In the past, a child in a
painting had to look pretty and contented. Grown-ups did not want to know about
the sorrows and agonies of childhood, and they resented it if this aspect of it was
brought home to them. But Kokoschka would not fall in with these demands of
convention. We feel that he has looked at these children with a deep sympathy and
compassion. He has caught their wistfulness and dreaminess, the awkwardness of
their movements and the disharmonies of their growing bodies. To bring all this
out he could not rely on the accepted stock-in-trade of correct draughtsmanship,
but his work is all the more true to life for what it lacks in conventional accuracy.
2D
428
Experimental Art
353. kokoschka: Children playing. 1909. Malmo, Theodor Woelfers
The art of Barlach or Kokoschka can hardly be called experimental. But the idea
that art is first and foremost a means of self-expression was bound to lead to a
number of experiments. Do we need nature at all if we want to express our own
selves ? The most expressive of all the arts, music, gets along without representing
anything. Would it not be possible to do the same in painting ? To express a mood
or emotion only by means of colours and lines ? Paintings which discard all subject-
matters are often referred to as ‘abstract’ pictures. The word abstract is not too
happily chosen, but the experiment of expression through colours and forms alone
was certainly worth making. Vassily Kandinsky (1866-1944), a Russian who lived
much in Germany and France, was among the first to experiment with these possi-
bilities in pictures (Fig. 354) to which he sometimes gave names reminiscent
of musical compositions, just as Whistler had done a generation earlier (p. 401,
Rg- 335)-
354. Kandinsky: Composition . About 1913.
Berlin, National Gallery
Experimental Art 429
355. hodler: Lake Thun , painted in 1905.
Geneva, Musdc d’Art ct d’Histoire
The experiments of Cubism in France were based on rather different ideas. To
understand the problems which they were meant to solve, we have to think back
to Cezanne and his dissatisfaction with Impressionism. Cezanne, though, was not
the only artist at the end of the nineteenth century who longed for simplicity
and order in art. A whole group of young painters of the period gave up Impres-
sionism, and tried to simplify the forms of nature so as to make their pictures into
356. seurat: Bridge at Courhevoie , painted in 1886-7. London, Home House Trustees
430
Experimental Art
357. BEARDSLEY: Illustration to Oscar 358. toulouse-lautrec: Poster.
Wilde's 'Salome', published in 1894 Lithograph in colours, 1892
clear and bold patterns. It was particularly the artists who were interested in the
design of murals, posters or book illustrations, who saw the need for a new emphasis
on a clear and rhythmical distribution of forms on the surface, on the ‘architecture’
of the picture, as they called it. In Switzerland the painter Hodler (1853-1918), who
was born in the same year as Van Gogh, strove for an art of lucid simplification
(Fig. 355). In France the painter Georges Seurat (1860-91) experimented with new
effects : to preserve the intensity of unbroken colours and the clear outlines of forms
without sacrificing the discoveries of Impressionism, he developed a kind of mosaic
technique in which uniform patches of colour were used to build up the picture
(Fig. 356). The art of the poster was developed by Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901)
who achieved his striking effects with the greatest economy of means (Fig. 358).
In that period of ‘Post-Impressionism’, the word ‘decorative’ became one of the
art critics’ favourite expressions. Artists with a sense of balance and a skill in
‘decorative’ simplification became the heroes of the ‘ Art Nouveau ’ in the eighteen-
nineties. The young English prodigy Aubrey Beardsley (1872-98) was one of the
most characteristic representatives of this fashion. His study of Whistler (p. 400)
and of Japanese prints (p. 397) had led him to an extremely bold and effective man-
ner of black-and-white illustrations which made him instantly famous (Fig. 357).
But Beardsley’s art also showed the inherent dangers of this all-too-facile simpli-
fication. As decorative orpaments these illustrations were successful, but the success
had been achieved at a price. These works were flat as real patterns, and lacked that
Experimental Art 431
359. matisse: La Desserte. 1908. Moscow, Museum of Western Art
force and concentration which the more vigorous artists of the turn of the century
strove to achieve.
It was here that the influence of Gauguin’s example made itself felt. Gauguin had
encouraged artists to abandon the subtleties of an over-refined art and to be forth-
right and direct in their forms and colour-schemes. He made them love intense and
simple colours and daring ‘barbaric’ harmonies. In 1905 a group of young painters
exhibited in Paris who were to be known as Les Fauves , which means ‘the wild
beasts’ or ‘the savages’. They owed their name to their open disregard for the
forms of nature and their enjoyment of violent colours. Actually, there was little
of savagery in them. The most famous of the group, Henri Matisse (born 1869),
was two years older than Beardsley and had a similar talent for decorative simplifi-
cation. He studied the colour-schemes of Oriental carpets and of North African
scenery, and developed a style which has exerted a great influence on modem
design. Fig. 359 shows one of his paintings from the year 1908 called ‘La Desserte’.
We can see that what interested the artist was less the rendering of the visual im-
pression than its transformation into an ornament. The interplay of the wallpaper
design and the fabric of the tablecloth with the objects on the table forms the main
motif of the picture. Even the human figure and the landscape seen through the
432 Experimental Art
window have become part of this pattern, so it is quite consistent that the woman
and the trees are much simplified in their outlines and even distorted in their forms
to fit in with the flowers of the wallpaper. There is something of the decorative
effect of children’s drawings in the bright colours and simple outlines of these
paintings, though Matisse himself did not for a moment renounce sophistication.
This was the situation in Paris which led to the experiments of Cubism. One
of its originators was a young painter from Spain, Pablo Picasso, who was born in
1 88 1. Picasso was the son of a drawing master, and had been something like an
infant prodigy in the Barcelona Art School. At the age of nineteen he had come to
Paris where he painted subjects that would have pleased the Expressionists : beg-
gars, outcasts, strollers and circus people. But he evidently found no satisfaction in
this, and began to study primitive art, to which Gauguin and perhaps also Matisse
had drawn attention. We can imagine what he learned from these works : he learned
how it is possible to build up an image of a face or an object out of a few very simple
elements (p. 27). This was something different from the simplification of the
visual impression which the earlier artists had practised. They had reduced the
forms of nature to a flat pattern. Perhaps there were means to avoid that flatness,
to build up the picture of simple objects and yet retain a sense of solidity and
depth ? It was this problem which led Picasso back to Cezanne. In one of his letters
to a young painter, Cezanne had advised him to look at nature in terms of cubes,
cones and cylinders. He presumably meant that he should always keep these basic
solid shapes in mind when organizing his pictures. But Picasso and his friends
decided to take this advice literally. I suppose they reasoned somewhat like this:
‘we have long given up claiming that we represent things as they appear to our
eyes. That was a will-o’-the-wisp which it is useless to pursue. We do not want to
fix on the canvas the imaginary impression of a fleeting moment. Let us follow
Cezanne’s example, and build up the picture of our motifs as solidly and enduringly
as we can. Why not be consistent and accept the fact that our real aim is rather to
construct something than to copy something ? If we think of an object, let us say a
violin, it does not appear before the eyes of our mind as we would see it with our
bodily eyes. We can, and in fact do, think of its various aspects at the same time.
Some of them stand out so clearly that we feel that we can touch and handle them;
others are somehow blurred. And yet this strange medley of images represents
more of the “real” violin than any single snapshot or meticulous painting could
ever contain.’ This, I suppose, was the reasoning which led to such paintings as
Picasso’s still life of a violin. Fig. 360. In some respects it represents a return to
what we have called the Egyptian principles, in which an object was drawn from
the angle from which its characteristic form came out most clearly (p. 36). The
scroll and one peg are seen from the side as we imagine them when we think of a
violin. The sound-holes, on the other hand, are seen as from in front — they would
Experimental Art
433
360. PICASSO: Still Life, painted in 1912
not be visible from the side. The curve of the rim is greatly exaggerated, as we are
apt to overestimate the steepness of such curves when thinking of the feeling it
gives us to run our hand along the sides of such an instrument. The bow and the
strings float somewhere in space; the strings even occur twice, once related to the
front view, once towards the volute. Despite this apparent jumble of disconnected
forms — and there are more than I have enumerated — the picture does not really
look messy. The reason is that the artist has constructed his picture out of more or
less uniform parts so that the whole presents an appearance of consistency compara-
ble to such works of primitive art as the American totem pole (p. 28, Fig. 27).
Of course, there is one drawback in this method of building up the image of an
object of which the originators of Cubism were very well aware. It can be done only
with more or less familiar forms. Those who look at the picture must know what a
violin looks like to be able to relate the various fragments in the picture to each
other. That is the reason why Cubist painters usually chose familiar motifs —
guitars, bottles, fruit-bowls, or occasionally a human figure — where we can easily
pick our way through the paintings and understand the relationship of the various
parts. Not all people enjoy this game, and there is no reason why they should. But
there is every reason why they should not misunderstand the artist’s purpose. You
434 Experimental Art
hear people say that it is an insult to their intelligence to expect them to believe
that a violin ‘looks like that’. But there is no question of such an insult. If anything
the artist pays them a compliment. He assumes that they know what a violin is like,
and that they do not come to his picture to receive this elementary information.
He invites them to share with him in this sophisticated game of building up the
idea of a tangible solid object out of a few flat fragments on his canvas. We know
that artists of all periods have tried to put forward their solution of the essential
paradox of painting, which is that it represents depth on a surface. Cubism was an
attempt not to gloss over this paradox but rather to exploit it for new effects.
Picasso never pretended that the methods of Cubism could replace all other ways
of representing the visible world. On the contrary. He is fond of changing his
methods and of returning once in a while from the boldest experiments in image-
making to various traditional forms of art. It may be hard to believe that Fig. 361
and Fig. 362 both represent a human head as drawn by the same artist. To under-
stand the second we must go back to our experiments in ‘doodling’ (p. 27), to the
primitive fetish of p. 26, Fig. 25 or the mask of p. 27, Fig. 26. Apparently Picasso
wanted to find put how far the idea of constructing the image of a head out of the
most unlikely forms could be carried. He puts the schematic eyes as far apart as
possible, he lets a broken line stand for the mouth with its row of teeth and he
361. PICASSO: Head, Lithograph. 1945 362. Picasso: Head. 1928. New York,
J. J. Sweeney
Experimental Art 435
somehow adds an undulating shape to suggest the contour of the face. But from
these adventures on the borderline of the impossible he returns to such firm, con-
vincing and moving images as Fig. 361. No method and no technique satisfies him
for long. Recently he has abandoned painting for handmade pottery. Few people
might guess at first sight that the plate on Fig. 352 was made by one of the most
sophisticated masters of our age. Maybe it is precisely his amazing facility in
draughtsmanship, his technical virtuosity, which makes Picasso long for the simple
and uncomplicated. It must give him a peculiar satisfaction to throw all his cunning
and cleverness overboard and to make something with his own hands which recalls
the works of peasants or of children.
Picasso himself denies that he is making experiments. He says he does not search,
he finds. He mocks at .those who want to understand his art. ‘Everyone wants to
understand art. Why not try to understand the song of a bird ? ’ Of course, he is
right. No painting can be fully ‘explained’ in words. But words are sometimes use-
ful pointers, they help to clear away misunderstandings and can give us at least an
inkling of the situation in which the artist finds himself. I believe that the situation
which leads Picasso to his different ‘finds ’ is very typical of modern art.
The best way, perhaps, of understanding this situation is by looking once more
at its origins. To the artists of the ‘good old days’ the subject had come first. They
received a commission to paint, say, a Madonna or a portrait and they then set to
work to carry it out as best they could. When commissions of this kind became
rarer, artists had to choose their own subjects. Some concentrated on themes which
would attract prospective buyers. They painted carousing monks, or lovers in the
moonlight, or a dramatic event from patriotic history. Other artists refused to
become illustrators of this kind. If
they had to choose a subject them-
selves they would choose one which
allowed them to study some definite
problem of their craft. Thus the
Impressionists, who were interested
in the effects of light in the open,
shocked the public by painting sub-
urban streets or haystacks rather
than scenes with a ‘literary’ appeal.
By calling the portrait of his mother
(p. 400, Fig. 334) ‘Arrangement in
grey and black’ Whistler flaunted his
conviction that to an artist any sub-
ject is but an opportunity of studying
the balance of colour and design. 363. giacometti: Head, about 1930
436 Experimental Art
A master such as Cezanne did not even have to proclaim this fact. We remember
that his still life (p. 41 1, Fig. 341) could only be understood as a painter’s attempt to
study various problems of his art. The Cubists continued where Cezanne had left
off. Henceforward an increasing number of artists took it for granted that what
matters in art is to find new solutions for what is called problems of ‘form’. To
these artists, then, ‘form’ always comes first and the ‘subject’ second.
If a modern sculptor such as Giacometti (born 1901 in Switzerland) calls a mere
stone cube with two dells in it a ‘head’ (Fig. 363) he does not want to persuade
us that he has ever seen such a block-head in real life. Houdon (p. 355, Fig. 299)
or Rodin (p. 390, Fig. 326) in their wonderful portrait busts had in fact wanted
to preserve for us what they had seen in the features of an inspiring head. Gia-
cometti’s purpose, like Picasso’s, is entirely different. He is a sculptor who is
fascinated by certain special problems of his calling and he assumes — rightly or
wrongly — that we, too, share his interest. This problem, which he wants to tackle,
was not invented by modern art. We remember that Michelangelo’s idea of
sculpture was to bring out the form that seems to slumber in the marble (p. 227),
to give life and movement to the figure while yet preserving the simple outline of
the stone. Giacometti seems to have decided to approach the problem from the
other end. He wants to try out how much the sculptor can retain of the original
shape of his block while still transforming it into the suggestion of a human head.
He finds that he need not even harm the surface by boring holes to represent the
eyes. He just hollows out his two simple shapes and hopes that the surprising
recognition of like in unlike will be more stimulating to us than the contemplation
364. feininger: Sailing Boats , painted in 1929. Detroit, R. H. Tannahill
Experimental Art 437
of a waxwork head, complete with eyelashes and all. And so it is, even if it might
be argued that he has evaded rather than solved Michelangelo’s real problem.
The paintings of the American Lionel Feininger (born 1871), who worked for a
time at the Bauhaus (p. 420), provide a good example of the way in which modem
artists select their subjects so as to demonstrate certain problems of ‘form’.
Feininger is fascinated by the age-old puzzle of painting, the problem of how
to represent space on a flat surface without thereby destroying the lucid design
(pp. 190, 200 and 406). He has developed an ingenious device of his own, that
of building his pictures out of overlapping triangles which look as if they were
transparent and thus suggest a succession of layers — much like the transparent
curtains one sometimes sees on the stage. As these shapes appear to lie one behind
the other they convey the idea of depth and allow the artist to simplify the outlines
of his objects without the picture looking flat. Feininger likes to select motifs such
as the gabled streets of medieval cities or groups of sailing ships which give scope
to his triangles and diagonals. His picture of a sailing regatta (Fig. 364) shows that
the method not only enables him to convey a feeling of space but also a sense of
movement.
It was almost inevitable that this increasing concern with problems of ‘form’
would lead to experiments with paintings in which no subject at all is represented
and which rely for their interest only on the arrangement of shapes and colours. We
remember that the ‘abstract’ paintings of Kandinsky in Germany before the First
World War had grown out of the idea that painting, like music, could be ‘pure’
expression. At about the same time other painters in Paris, in Russia, and soon also
in Holland based similar experiments on the idea that painting is construction, like
architecture. They tried to ‘build’ patterns out of simple shapes like circles and
squares. Such works often excite much ridicule in exhibitions ; yet it is really not
very difficult to imagine a frame of mind in which an artist may get completely
engrossed in the mysterious problem of relating such shapes and tones till they
appear ‘right’ (p. 14). It is quite possible that a picture which contains nothing but
two squares may have caused its maker more worry than it caused an artist of the
past to paint a Madonna. For the painter of the Madonna knew what he was aiming
at. He had tradition as his guide and the number of decisions with which he was
confronted was limited. The modern painter with his two squares is in a less
enviable position. He may shift them about on his canvas, try an infinite number of
possibilities and may never know when and where to stop. Even if we do not share
his interest we need not scoff at his self-imposed labours.
If we try to picture this situation we may find it less difficult to understand how
other modern artists came to reject the idea that art should concern itself only with
the solution of problems of ‘form’. This preoccupation with puzzles of balance
and method, however subtle and absorbing, left them with a feeling of emptiness
365. henry moore: Recumbent Figure . Made in 1938. London, Tate Gallery
which they tried almost desperately to overcome. Like Picasso himself they groped
for something less sophisticated, less arbitrary. But if the interest should lie neither
in the ‘subject’ — as of old — nor in the ‘form’ — as recently — what are these works
meant to stand for ?
The answer is more easily felt than given, for such explanations so easily deterio-
rate into sham profundity or downright nonsense. Still, if it must be said, I suppose
the true reply is that the modern artist wants to create things. The stress is on
create and on things. He wants to feel that he has made something which had no
existence before. Not just a copy of a real object, however skilful, not just a piece
of decoration, however clever, but something more relevant and lasting than either,
something that he feels to be more real than the shoddy objects of our humdrum
existence. If we want to understand this frame of mind, we must go back to our own
childhood, to a time when we still felt able to make things out of bricks or sand,
when we turned a broomstick into a magic wand, and a few stones into an enchanted
castle. Sometimes these self-made things acquired an immense significance for us —
perhaps as much as the image may have for the primitive. I believe it is this intense
feeling for the uniqueness of a thing made by the magic of human hands that the
sculptor Henry Moore (born 1898) wants us to have in front of his creations (Fig.
365). Moore does not start by looking at his model. He starts by looking at his stone.
He wants to ‘make something’ out of it. Not by smashing ic'tQ bits, but by feeling
Experimental Art 439
his way, and by trying to find out what the stone ‘wants’. If it turns into a sugges-
tion of a human figure, well and good. But even in this figure he wants to preserve
something of the solidity and simplicity of a rock. He does not try to make a woman
of stone but a stone which suggests a woman.
It is this way of working, I think, which Picasso had in mind when he says he
does not seek, he finds. For many modem artists think it wrong to work according
to any preconceived plan. They are not out to represent any subject in particular
nor, for that matter, to solve any specific ‘formal problems ’. They believe that the
work should be allowed to ‘grow’ according to its own laws. This method again
recalls our doodles on the blotting paper when we let ourselves be surprised by the
outcome of our idle pen-games — only that the modern artist takes his work very
seriously. The best description of this procedure was given by the Swiss painter and
musician Paul Klee (1879-1940) in a lecture at the Bauhaus (p. 420). He began by
relating lines, shades and colours to each other, adding a stress here, removing
a weight there to achieve that feeling of balance or ‘rightness’ after which every
artist is striving. He described how the forms emerging under his hands gradually
suggested some real or fantastic subject to his imagination and how he followed
these hints if he felt that it would help and not hinder his harmonies if he com-
pleted the image that he had ‘found’. It was his conviction that this way of creating
images was more ‘true to nature’ than any slavish copy could ever be. For nature
herself, he argued, creates through the artist; it is the same mysterious power that
formed the weird shapes of prehistoric animals and the fantastic fairyland of the
deep sea fauna which is still active in the artist’s mind and makes his creatures grow.
If the outcome of all this searching and groping (Fig. 351) looked to the outsider
rather like a childish scrawl this did not worry Klee overmuch. Like Picasso he
longed to get rid of the standards of earnest grown-ups and recover the unspoilt im-
agination of the primitives and of children. Once more it may be useful to remember
that this yearning for the simple and naive is not just a w hi m of modern artists. We
have met with it in the case of Gauguin (p.416), who was merely the most consistent
of the nineteenth-century artists who yearned for the lost paradise of innocence.
In one of his letters from Tahiti, Gauguin had written that he felt he had to go
back beyond the horses of the Parthenon, back to the rocking-horse of his child-
hood. It is easy to scoff at this preoccupation of modern artists with the simple and
child-like, and yet it should not be too difficult to understand it. For artists feel that
this directness and simplicity is the one thing that cannot be learnt. Every other
trick of the trade can be acquired. Every effort becomes easy to imitate after it has
been shown that it can be done. Many artists feel that the museums and exhibitions
are full of works of such amazing facility and skill that nothing is gained by continu-
ing along these lines; that they are in danger of losing their souls and becoming
slick manufacturers of paintings or sculptures unless they become as litde children.
440
Experimental Art
This Primitivism advocated by Gauguin
became perhaps an even more lasting in-
fluence on modem art than either Van
Gogh’s Expressionism or Cezanne’s way
to Cubism. It heralded a complete revo-
lution in taste which began round about
1906, the year of the first exhibition of
the ‘Fauves ’ (p. 431). It was only through
this revolution that critics began to dis-
cover the beauty of the works of the early
Middle Ages such as p. 115, Fig. 107, or
p. 128, Fig. 120. It was then that artists
began to study the works of native tribes-
men with the same zeal with which
academic artists studied Greek sculpture.
It was this change of taste, too, which led
366. ROUSSEAU: Portrait of Joseph Brunner. . . . .
1909. Zurich, Dr. Franz Meyer Collection young painters in Pans at the beginning
of the twentieth century to discover the
art of an amateur painter, a customs official who led a quiet and unobtrusive life in
the suburbs. This painter, Henri Rousseau (1844-1910), proved to them that far
from being a way to salvation, the training of the professional painter may spoil his
chances. For Rousseau knew nothing of
correct draughtsmanship, nothing of the
tricks of Impressionism. He painted with
simple, pure colours and clear outlines,
every single leaf of a tree and every blade
of grass of a lawn (Fig. 366). And yet
there is in his pictures, however awkward
they may seem to the sophisticated mind,
something so vigorous, simple and forth-
right that one must acknowledge him as
a master.
In the strange race after the naive and
unsophisticated which now began, those
artists who, like Rousseau himself, had had
first-hand experience of the simple life
enjoyed a natural advantage. Marc Chagall
(born 1889), for instance, a painter who
came to Paris from a small provincial
ghetto in Russia shortly before the First
Experimental Art 441
World War, did not allow his acquaintance with modern experiments to blot out his
childhood memories. His paintings of village scenes and types, such as his musician
who has become one with his instrument (Fig. 367), succeed in preserving some-
thing of the zest and child-like wonder of real folk art.
The admiration for Rousseau and the naive self-taught manner of ‘Sunday
Painters’ led other artists to renounce the complicated theories of ‘Expressionism’
and of ‘Cubism’ as unnecessary ballast. They wanted to conform to the ideal of
the ‘man in the street’, and paint clear and straightforward pictures in which every
leaf on the trees and every furrow in the fields could be counted. It was their pride
to be ‘down to earth’ and ‘matter of fact’ and also to paint subjects which the plain
man can like and understand. Both in National Socialist Germany and in Com-
munist Russia this attitude found eager support from the politicians, but this need
368. grant wood: Spring Turning, painted in 1936. Coll. Mrs. Elon H. Hooker, New York.
prove nothing for or against it. The American Grant Wood (1891-1942), who
had been to Paris and Munich, celebrated the beauty of his native Iowa with
this deliberate simplicity. For his painting of ‘Spring Turning’ (Fig. 368) he even
made a clay-model which enabled him to study the scenery from an unexpected
angle and imparts to his work something of the charm of a toy landscape.
One may well sympathize with the taste of modern artists for all that is direct and
genuine and yet feel that their efforts to become deliberately naive and unsophisti-
cated were bound to land them in self-contradiction. The best known of the modem
movements in art — Surrealism — well illustrates this difficulty. The name was
coined in 1924 to express the longing of young artists to create something more
real than reality itself, something of greater significance, that is, than a mere copy of
what we see. But, alas, one cannot become ‘primitive’ at will. While some of these
artists were driven by their frantic wish to become child-like into the most astonish-
ing antics of calculated silliness, others were led to consult scientific textbooks on
44 2 Experimental Art
what constitutes the primitive mind. They were greatly impressed by the writings
of Freud who had shown that when our wakening thoughts are numbed the child
and the savage in us takes over. It was this idea which made the Surrealists proclaim
that art can never be produced by wide-awake reason. They might admit that
reason can give us science but would say that only unreason can give us art. Even
this theory is not quite as new as it may sound. The ancients spoke of poetry as
a kind of ‘divine madness ’, and Romantic writers like Coleridge and De Quincey
deliberately experimented with opium and other drugs to drive out reason and let
imagination take sway. The Surrealists, too, hanker after mental states in which
what is deep down in our minds may come to the surface. They agree with Klee
that an artist cannot plan his work but must let it grow. The result may look
monstrous to an outsider but if he discards his prejudice and lets his fancy play
he may come to share the artist’s strange dream.
I am not sure that this theory is right, nor even that it really corresponds to the
ideas of Freud. Nevertheless, the experiment of painting dream-pictures was
certainly worth making. In dreams we often experience the strange feeling that
people and objects merge and exchange places. Our cat may at the same time be our
aunt and our garden Africa. One of the leading Surrealist painters, the Spaniard
Salvador Dali (born 1905), who spent several years in the U.S.A., has tried to
369. DALI: Apparition of Face and Fruit-dish on a Beach , painted in 1938. Hartford, U.S.A.
Wadsworth Atheneum
Experimental Art 443
imitate this weird confusion of our dream-life. In some of his pictures he mixes
surprising and incoherent fragments of the real world — painted with the same
detailed accuracy with which Grant Wood paints his landscapes — and gives us the
haunting feeling that there must be some sense in this apparent madness. As we
look more closely at Fig. 369, for instance, we discover that the dream-landscape in
the upper right-hand corner, the bay with its waves, the mountain with its tunnel,
represents at the same time the head of a dog whose collar is also a railway viaduct
across the sea. The dog hovers in mid-air — the middle part of its body is formed by
a fruit-bowl with pears which in its turn merges into the face of a girl whose eyes
are formed by some strange sea-shells on a beach crowded with puzzling appari-
tions. As in a dream, some things, like the rope and the cloth, stand out with un-
expected clarity while other shapes remain vague and elusive.
A painting such as this brings it home to us for the last time why it is that
modern artists are not satisfied in simply representing ‘what they see’. They have
become too much aware of the many problems which are hidden in this demand.
They know that the artist who wants to ‘represent’ a real (or imagined) thing does
not start by opening his eyes and looking about him but by taking colours and
forms and building up the required image. The reason why we often forget this
simple truth is that in most pictures of the past each form and each colour happened
to signify only one thing in nature — the brown strokes stood for tree trunks, the
green dots for leaves. Dali’s way of letting each form represent several things at the
same time may focus our attention on the many possible meanings of each colour
and form — much in the way in which a successful pun may make us aware of the
function of words and their meaning. Dali’s sea-shell which is also an eye, his fruit-
bowl which is also a girl’s forehead and nose, may send our thoughts back to the first
chapter of this book, to the Aztec rain-god Tlaloc, whose features were composed of
rattlesnakes (p. 30, Fig. 29).
And yet — if we really take the trouble of looking up the ancient idol we may
receive something of a shock — how great is the difference in spirit for all possible
similarity of methods ! Both images may have emerged from a dream, but Tlaloc, we
feel, was the dream of a whole people, the nightmare figure of the dire power that
held sway over their fate ; Dali’s dog and fruit-bowl reflect the elusive dream of a
private person to which we hold no key. It clearly would be unfair to blame the
modem artist for this difference. It arises out of the totally different circumstances
in which the two works were created.
To produce a perfect pearl the oyster needs some piece of matter, a sandcorn or
a small splinter round which the pearl can form. Without such a hardcore it may
grow into a shapeless mass. If the artist’s feelings for forms and colours are to
crystallize in a perfect work, he, too, needs such a hard core — a definite task on
which he can bring his gifts to bear.
2E
444 Experimental Art
We know that in the more distant past all works of art gained shape round such a
vital core. It was the community which set the artists their tasks — be it the making
of ritual masks or the building of cathedrals, the painting of portraits or the illustra-
tion of books. It matters comparatively little whether we happen to be in sympathy
with all these tasks or not; one need not approve of bison-hunting by magic, of the
glorification of criminal wars or the ostentation of wealth and power to admire the
works of art which were once created to serve such ends. The pearl completely
covers the core. It is the secret of the artist that he does his work so superlatively
well that we all but forget to ask what his work was supposed to be, for sheer
admiration of the way he did it. We are all familiar with this shift of emphasis in
more trivial instances. If we say of a schoolboy that he is an artist in boasting or
that he has turned shirking into a fine art, we mean precisely this — that he displays
such ingenuity and imagination in the pursuance of his unworthy ends that we are
forced to admire his skill however much we may disapprove of his motives. It was
a fateful moment in the Story of Art when people’s attention became so riveted on
the way in which artists had developed painting or sculpting into a fine art that they
forgot to give artists more definite tasks. We know that the first step in this direc-
tion was taken in Hellenistic times (p. 74), another in the Renaissance (p. 210). But
however surprising this may sound, this step did not yet deprive painters and
sculptors of that vital core of a task which alone could fire their imagination. Even
when definite jobs became rarer there remained a host of problems for the artist in
the solution of which he could display his mastery. Where these problems were not
set by the community they were set by tradition. It was the tradition of image-
making which carried in its stream, as it were, those indispensable sandcoms of
tasks. We know that it was a matter of tradition rather than any inherent necessity
that art should reproduce nature. The importance of this demand in the history of
art from Giotto (p. 144) to the Impressionists (p. 391) does not lie in the fact — as
is sometimes thought — that it is the ‘essence’ or ‘duty’ of art to imitate the real
world. Nor is it true, I believe, that this demand is quite irrelevant. For it provided,
as we have seen, just the type of insoluble problem which challenges the ingenuity
of the artist and makes him do the impossible. We have frequently seen, moreover,
how each solution of one of these problems, however breath-taking, gave rise to new
problems elsewhere which gave younger men the opportunity of showing what they
could do with colours and forms. For even the artist who is in revolt against
tradition depends on it for that stimulus which gives direction to his efforts.
It is for this reason that I have tried to tell the Story of Art as the story of a con-
tinuous weaving and changing of traditions in which each work refers to the past
and points to the future. For there is no aspect of this story more wonderful than
this — that a living chain of tradition still links the art of our own days with that of
Experimental Art 445
the Pyramid age. The heresies of Akhnaton (p. 42), the turmoil of the Dark Ages
(p. 1 10), the crisis of art in the Reformation period (p. 274), and the break in tradi-
tion at the time of the French Revolution (p. 358) each threatened this continuity.
The danger was often very real. After all the arts have been known to die out in
whole countries and civilizations when the last link snapped. But somehow and
somewhere the final disaster was always averted. When old tasks disappeared new
ones turned up which gave artists that sense of direction and sense of purpose
without which they cannot create great works. In architecture, I believe, this
miracle has happened once more. After the fumblings and hesitations of the
nineteenth century modern architects have found their beatings. They know what
they want to do and the public has begun to accept their work as a matter of
course. For painting and sculpture the crisis has not yet passed the danger point.
Despite some promising experiments (p. 420) there still remains an unhappy
cleavage between what is called ‘applied’ or ‘commercial’ art which surrounds us
in daily life and the ‘pure’ art of exhibitions and galleries which many of us find
so hard to understand.
It is just as thoughtless to be ‘for modern art’ as it is to be ‘against it’. The situa-
tion in which it grew is just as much our own doing as that of the artists. There are
certainly painters and sculptors alive today who would have done honour to any
age. If we do not ask them to do anything in particular, what right have we got to
blame them if their work appears to us obscure and aimless ?
The general public has settled down to the notion that an artist is a fellow who
should produce Art much in the way a bootmaker produces boots. By this they
mean that he should produce the kind of paintings or sculptures they have seen
labelled as Art before. One can understand this vague demand, but, alas, it is the
one job the artist cannot do. What has been done before presents no problem any
more. There is no task in it that could put the artist on his mettle. But critics and
‘highbrows’, too, are sometimes guilty of a similar misunderstanding. They, too,
tell the artist to produce Art; they, too, are inclined to think of pictures and statues
as specimens for future museums. The only task they set the artist is that of creating
‘something new’ — if they had their way, each work would represent a new style,
a new ‘ism’. In the absence of any more concrete jobs even the most gifted modern
artists sometimes fall in with these demands. Their solutions of the problem of how
to be original are sometimes of a wit and brilliance not to be despised, but in the
long run this is hardly a task worth pursuing. That, I believe, is the ultimate reason
why modern artists so often turn to various theories, new and old, about the nature
of art. It is probably no more true to say that ‘art is expression’ or that ‘art is
construction’ than it was to say that ‘art is the imitation of nature’. But any such
theory, even the most obscure one, may contain that proverbial grain of truth which
might do for the pearl.
446 Experimental Art
Here, at last, we are back at our starting point. There really is no such thing as
Art. There are only artists — men and women, that is, who are favoured with the
wonderful gift of balancing shapes and colours till they are ‘right’, and, rarer still,
who possess that integrity of character which never rests content with half-solutions
but is ready to forgo all easy effects, all superficial success for the toil and agony of
sincere work. Artists, we trust, will always be born. But whether there will also
be art depends to no small extent on ourselves, their public. By our indifference or
our interest, by our prejudice or our understanding we may yet decide the issue.
It is we who must see to it that the thread of tradition does not break and that there
remain opportunities for the artist to add to the precious string of pearls that is
our heirloom from the past.
370. The Painter and his Model. Illustration by picasso to Balzac’s
Le Chef-d'Giuvre Inconnu , published by Vollard in Paris, 1931
A NOTE ON ART BOOKS
I have made it a rule in the body of this book
not to irritate the reader with repeated re-
minders of the many things that lack of space
prevented me from showing or discussing. I
must break this rule here and say with empha-
sis, and with regret, that it is quite impossible
for me to acknowledge all the authorities to
whom I am indebted in the foregoing pages.
Our ideas about the past are the result of an
immense co-operative effort and even a simple
book like this may be described as a report on
the work of a large team of historians, living
and dead, who have helped to clarify the out-
lines of periods, styles and personalities. And
how many facts, formulations and opinions
one may have taken from others without know-
ing it! I happen to remember that I owe my
remarks on the religious roots of Greek sport
(p. 58) to a broadcast by Professor gilbert
Murray at the time of the London Olympic
games, but it was only on re-reading D. f.
tovey’s book on The Integrity of Music ,
Oxford, 1941, that I realized how many of its
ideas I had used in the Introduction to this book.
But while I cannot hope to list all the writings
which I may have read or consulted, I did
express the hope, in the preface to this volume,
that it may equip newcomers for consulting
more specialized books to greater advantage. It
therefore remains to show the way to these
books.
It may be useful to start with some rough and
ready division to distinguish the many kinds
of art books which crowd the shelves of our
libraries and bookshops. There are books for
reading, books for reference and books to
look at. By the first group I mean books we
enjoy for the sake of their authors. These are
works which cannot ‘ date * because, even when
the views and interpretations they offer are no
longer in fashion, they remain valuable as
documents of their time and as expressions of
a personality. To those who want to deepen
their acquaintance with the world of art in
general, without wanting to become specialists
in any particular field, it is this type of book I
would recommend for further reading. Among
these, again I would single out the source
books of the past, books by artists or writers
who were in close touch with the things they
describe. Not ail of them make easy reading,
but any effort it may take to get acquainted
with a world of ideas so different from our own
will be richly rewarded through a better and
more intimate understanding of the past.
Among these primary sources which exist in
English versions I would list — in chronologi-
cal order — The elder pliny’s Chapters on the
History of Art translated by K. J. Bleake, with
a commentary by E. Sellers, London, 1896, our
most important source of information on Greek
and Roman painting and sculpture, compiled
from older texts by the famous scholar who
perished in the destruction of Pompeii (p. 77).
Old Chinese writings on art are most easily
accessible in a volume of the ‘Wisdom of the
East * series, entitled The Spirit of the Brushy
translated by Shio Sakanishi, London, 1939.
The most important document for the outlook
of the great medieval cathedral builders
(p. 131 f.) is the account of abbot suger of
the building of the first great Gothic church,
which exists in a model edition: Abbot Suger
on the Abbey Church of St. Denis and tts Art
Treasures , edited, translated and annotated by
E. Panofsky, Princeton, 1946. Those who are
interested in the technique and training of late
medieval painters can now turn to the equally
scholarly edition of cennino cennini, The
Craftsman's Handbook , by Daniel V. Thomp-
son Jr. (2 vols.). New Haven, 1932-3. The
standard edition of Leonardo da vinci’s
principal writings and notes (p. 214) is J. P.
Richter, The Literary Works of Leonardo da
Vinci , Oxford, 1939. His plea for the dignity of
painting (p. 215) now exists in a special edition,
LEONARDO da VINCI, Paragone: A Compari-
son of the Arts , translated and edited by Irma A.
Richter, Oxford, 1949. Leonardo da vinci’s
Treatise on Painting , translated by J. F. Rigaud,
London, 1887, is based on an important collec-
tion of the master’s notes made in the sixteenth
century, some of which no longer exist in the
original.
The Literary Remains of Albrecht durer
(p. 254) exist in an English edition by W. M.
Conway, Cambridge, 1889. durer ’s Records
of his Journeys to Venice and the Low Countries
(p. 256) exist in a separate edition by Roger
Fry, Boston, 1913.
A Note on Art Books
448
By far the most important source book for
the art of the Renaissance in Italy is giorgio
vasari’s Lives of the Painters , Sculptors and
Architects, which exists in a handy (though not
faultless) edition in ‘Everyman’s Library’,
London, 1927 (4 vols.). The original text was
first published in 1550 and revised and en-
larged in 1568. It is a book that can be read for
pleasure, as a collection of anecdotes and short
stories, some of which may even be true. It will
be read with even greater profit and enjoyment
if we take it as an interesting document of the
period of ‘Mannerism*, when artists became
conscious and over-conscious of the great
achievements of the past that weighed on them
(p. 265 {.). The other fascinating book by
a Florentine artist of that restless period,
BENVENUTO Cellini’s Autobiography
(p. 267), exists in various English editions ; the
latest is that edited by John Pope-Hennessy in
the ‘Phaidon Pocket Editions’, London, 1949.
The academic tradition of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, tempered by much
wisdom and common sense, is represented by
SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS’S Fifteen Discourses,
Delivered in the Royal Academy, which also
exists in the ‘Everyman’s Library’, London,
1906 (p. 349).
The Romantic point of view is most clearly
reflected in the wonderful Journals of eugene
delacroix (p. 381), translated by Walter
Pach, New York, 1937. A source book on the
Impressionists by an art dealer who knew most
of them is T. duret’s Manet and the French
Impressionists, London, 1910 (p. 387 f.), but
many will find the study of their letters more
rewarding. There are English translations of
the letters of camille pissarro (p. 394),
edited by J. Rewald, New York, 1943, of
degas by M. Guerin, Oxford, 1947, of
Cezanne (pp. 405, 432) by J. Rewald,
London, 1941. van gogh’s Letters to his
Brother (pp. 41 1, 423) were published in
English in 1927 (2 vols.). Further Letters in
1929, and his Letters to E. Bernard (edited by
D. Lord), London, 1938.
j.A.mcn.whistler’s Gentle Art of Making
Enemies (p. 401) came out in London, 1890.
The point of view of modern architects is
forcefully put in the writings of such pioneers
as FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT (p. 404), whose
London lectures and discussions were tran-
scribed in a lively volume entitled An Organic
Architecture, London, 1939, and whose Auto-
biography was published in New York, 1932,
or le Corbusier, whose volumes Towards a
New Architecture , London, 1927, and The City
of Tomorrow , London, 1929, show the modem
architect’s ambition to reform our whole way
of life.
Among modern painters who have explained
their artistic creed in print I may mention
PAUL KLEE, On Modern Art (translated by
P. Findley) London, 1948 (p. 439), an d
HILAIRE hillr. Why Abstract ?, London,
1948, which contains a clear and intelligible
account of an American artist’s conversion to
‘abstract’ painting.
In conclusion two excellent anthologies must
be quoted which supplement the books listed
above and may also serve as an introduction to
the whole field : e.g.holt, Literary Sources of
Art History, Princeton, 1947, and Robert
GOLDWATER AND MARCO TREVES, ArtlStS
on Arty New York, 1945, both of which can be
opened anywhere and read for pleasure.
This category of books which should be read
just as much for the sake of their authors as for
the information they contain should also in-
clude a number of works by the great critics and
historians of art. Opinions about their relative
merits are bound to differ and the following
short list should only be taken as a first guide
to those who are searching a library catalogue
or bookshop for reading matter on art.
Those who want to clarify their own views
on artistic matters and to benefit from past
enthusiasm might do worse than sample the
books of the leading nineteenth-century art
critics such as John rusk in (p. 401 f.),
WILLIAM MORRIS (p. 404), Or WALTER
pater, the representative of the ‘aesthetic
movement’ in England (p. 402). The French
critics of the period happen to be a little closer
to our own present outlook and the writings
on art by Charles baudelaire, eugene
fromentin and the brothers edmond and
jules de goncourt are related to the
artistic revolutions of French painting (p. 385).
The spokesman of ‘Post-Impressionism* (p.
430) in England was roger fry; the most
sympathetic interpreter of ‘experimental art*
in this country is Herbert read.
Historians of art may conveniently (if some-
what superficially) be grouped intoconnoisseurs
and students of stylistic trends. Among the
first there are the towering figures of a passing
generation whose word on matters of ‘ attribu-
tion* was (or still is) law. They include scholars
such as Bernard berenson, whose Italian
A Note on Art Books
Painters of the Renaissance (revised edition,
Oxford, 1930) has become something of a
classic; wilhelm bode, whose Florentine
Sculptors of the Renaissance , London, 1908, and
Great Masters of Dutch and Flemish Painting ,
London, 1909, will always retain their impor-
tance as pioneer works; and max J. fried-
lander, whose Art and Connoisseur ship,
London, 1942, provides the best introduction
to the approach of this group.
For theories of stylistic change and its con-
nexion with historical developments we must
turn to the academic art historians of Germany
and Austria. The only examples of this impor-
tant branch of research at present accessible to
those who do not read German are two (rather
imperfectly translated) books by the Swiss
HEINRICH WOLFFLIN, The Art of the Italian
Renaissance, London, 1903, and Principles of
Art History, New York, 1932, which form an
admirable introduction into the technique of
comparative description.
The great school of French medievalists is
represented by emile male, of whose indis-
pensable studies on the themes of French art
an anthology exists in English with the title
Religious Art from the Twelfth to the Eighteenth
Century, New York, 1949.
The way to the books we want to read or to
look up when we are in search of information
on a particular period, technique or master is
more easily shown though it may take a little
trouble and practice to walk it to the end.
There are a number of books which contain
useful lists for further reading and if we pro-
ceed with these to a well-stocked library we
may quickly find what we want. Among handy
books containing such lists grouped according
to periods I would recommend Helen
Gardner, Art through the Ages , New York,
1948, and the second revised edition of david
M. robb and j. j. garrison, Art in the
Western World, New York, 1942. For their
individual fields L. ADAM, Primitive Art, ‘Pen-
guin*, 1940; pal kele men. Medieval Ameri-
can Art , New York, 1943; M. s. dimand,
A Handbook of Muhammedan Art, New York,
1944; w. cohn, Chinese Painting, London
(‘Phaidon*) 1948; c. e. morey. Medieval Art,
New York, 1942; F. J. mather. Western
European Painting of the Renaissance, New
York, 1939; JOHN rewald. The History of
Impressionism , New York, 1946; and N.
PEVSNER, An Outline of European Architecture
(‘Penguin* Editions 1943 and 1945, enlarged
449
edition London, 1948) contain up-to-date
book lists.
So much for books on periods. But it must
not be forgotten that the easiest access to the
art of the past is usually not through the study
of comprehensive works but rather through
the work of one representative master (mono-
graphs). If we occupy ourselves lovingly with
Michelangelo or Rembrandt, we are likely to
learn more about Italian or Dutch Art than if
we read a good many surveys of the whole
fields. The student in search of information on
any major or minor master does not usually
turn to such books for guidance. His happy
hunting ground are the various periodicals,
the Yearbooks, Quarterlies and Monthlies
published by various institutions and learned
societies all over Europe and America. In
these, specialists write for specialists, and pub-
lish the documents and interpretations out of
which the mosaic of history is formed. The
newcomer may find this at first a bewildering
world but if he is interested he will soon learn
to thread his way through the labyrinth of
facts to the heart of the problem which he
wants to solve for himself. This type of reading
can only be done in one of the major libraries
and there, on the open shelves, the student will
be sure to find the two works which he needs as
his constant guides. One is thieme-becker,
the largest and most complete dictionary of
artists of all times and countries in thirty-six
volumes. Though it is printed in German, the
list of books and articles at the end of each
entry comprises works in all languages and can
also be used by non-linguists. Its full title
is Allgemeines Lexikon der bildenden Kiinstler ,
herausgegeben von u. thieme und F. becker,
Leipzig, 1907-47. As it took forty years to
complete this vast undertaking, the volumes
covering the early parts of the alphabet are
now rather obsolete while the last letters show
evidence of the war years and of somewhat
mechanical compilation.
Luckily there exists another useful guide to
books and articles which have come out since
1929. This is an American Quarterly, called
the Art Index, a cumulative author and subject
index to a selected list of Fine Art Periodicals and
Museum Bulletins . There are volumes covering
three years each and if we are in search of any
subject, be it the name of an artist, a technique,
a country or a period, we can find it in the
alphabetical list of catchwords. Though books
are not directly listed, the index also helps us to
450
A Note on Art Books
track down any major work because it lists all
reviews of books which were published in any
of the periodicals it covers.
For illustrations finally, we are less de-
pendent on the language in which the books
that contain them are written, for a caption can
easily be understood. The most copiously illus-
trated history of art is the German Propylaen -
Kunstgeschichte , Berlin, 1925 etc., the sixteen
volumes of which (and several supplements)
contain nearly 10,000 full-page illustrations.
A less ambitious undertaking with many, but
very small, illustrations was Ars Una , Species
Mille (1900-48), a series of small volumes on
the art of individual countries. There exist
English editions of all but the last two volumes :
Great Britain and Ireland by sir w. Arm-
strong; Northern Italy by c. ricci; France
by L. hourtique; Egypt by G. d. maspero;
Spain and Portugal by M. dieulafoy;
Flanders by M. rooses; Ancient Rome by E.
sellers; Hollande by L. hourtique; Grkce
by L. HOURTIQUE.
The standard history of Italian art are the
twenty-five volumes of A. venturi’s Storia
dell' Arte Italiana , 1901-40. For Italian paint-
ing of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century
there are also the eighteen richly illustrated
volumes of R. V. marle’s Italian Schools of
Painting , 1923-38. For the painters of the
Netherlands in the fifteenth and sixteenth
century the fourteen volumes of m. j. fried -
LANDER’s Die altniederlandischen Maler , 1924-
37. A well illustrated history of Spanish art is
JUAN DE contrera’s Historia del Arte His -
panica, I93 I “45*
Ofc. R. post’s History of Spanish Painting
(1930, etc.) nine volumes have appeared so far,
which cover only the medieval period. For
German art, g. d e h i o’ s Geschichte der deutschen
Kunsty I9I9“34> is the most amply illustrated.
For French art the relevant chapters of A.
Michel’s Histoire de l'Art y Paris, 1905, may
prove the best source of illustrations. Of the
Oxford History of English Art , edited by T. s. R.
boase (planned in eleven volumes) only vol. v,
on the late Middle Ages, by joan evans,
has so far come out.
Another convenient source of illustrations
are the illustrated catalogues of collections and
galleries. In the publication of these, the
National Gallery and the Wallace Collection in
London with their complete and handy volumes
have taken an admirable lead. The National
Gallery of Art, Washington, has published a
large volume of coloured reproductions while
the Museum of Modern Art in New York has
published a number of exceedingly useful il-
lustrated volumes on its special exhibitions. Of
the principal collections of drawings, the Alber-
tina in Vienna, the British Museum in London,
the Royal Collection, Windsor Castle, and the
Fogg Museum of Art, Harvard University, are
publishing fully illustrated catalogues. The
Uffizi in Florence have published large folders
of their Italian drawings, the Louvre in Paris
many volumes of its French drawings and the
Berlin Kupferstichkabinett its German and
Dutch drawings. These and similar works arc
listed in library catalogues under the name of
the town where the collection is situated.
For complete and handy editions of the
works of the most famous painters and sculp-
tors we turn to the series ‘Klassiker der
Kunst’ (1906-37) with German introduc-
tions but English captions. They include (in
alphabetical order) Fra Angelico by f. schott-
muller; Botticelli by w. v. bode; Correggio
by G. gronau; Donatello by p. schubring;
Dtirerby v. scherer; Van Dyck by G. GLUCK;
Giotto by c. H. we 1 gelt; Hals by w. R.
valentiner; Holbein by p. ganz; Leonardo
by H. bodmer; Mantegna by F. knapp;
Memling by K. voll; Michelangelo by F.
knapp; Murillo by A. L. mayer; Perugino
by w. bombe; Raphael by A. rosenberg;
Rembrandt's Paintings by A. ROSENBERG,
Supplement by w. R. valentiner; Rem-
brandt's Etchings by singer; Rembrandt's
Drawings by w. r. valentiner; Rubens by
A. rosenberg; Signorelli by R. dussler;
Titian by o. fischel; Velazquez by w.
gensel; Watteau by e. h. zimmermann.
The Phaidon Press have also published
monographs on artists with many large plates :
Giovanni Bellini by p. hendy and l. gold-
scheider; Botticelli by L. venturi; Cizanne
by F. novotny; Donatello and Ghiberti by
L. goldscheider; Van Gogh by w. uhde;
Greco by l. goldscheider; Hals by N. s.
trivas; Leonardo ; Michelangelo Paintings and
Michelangelo Sculptures by L. goldscheider;
Piero Della Francesca by Kenneth clark;
Raphael by w. suida; Rembrandt's Paintings
by A. bredius; Rembrandt's Drawings by o.
benesch; Rodin by sommerville story;
Rubens by r. m. Stevenson; Tintoretto by
H. tietze; Titian by H. tietze; Uccello by
JOHN pope-hbnnessy; Velazquez by e.
lafuente; Vermeer by T. bodkin.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
{The war and post-war years have resulted in much temporary and permanent dislocation
of works of art . The locations given in this book are those last known,)
Frontispiece. Velazquez: Las Meninas. Mad-
rid, Prado. (Copyright Medici Society,
London)
INTRODUCTION
1. Rubens: Portrait of his son Nicholas.
Drawing. Vienna, Albertina
2. Diirer: Portrait of his mother. Drawing.
Vienna, Albertina
3. Murillo: Street arabs. Munich, Altc
Pinakothek
4. Pieter dc Hooch: Interior with a woman
peeling apples. (From the original in
the Wallace Collection, London, by
permission)
5. Melozzo da Forli: Angel. Detail. Vatican
Pinacoteca
6. Memlmg: Angels, Detail. Antwerp,
Museum
7. Guido Reni: Head of Christ. Detail.
London, National Gallery
8. Tuscan Master: Head of Christ. Detail.
Florence, Uffizi
9. Durer: A hare. Water-colour. Vienna,
Albertina
10. Rembrandt: An elephant. Drawing.
Vienna, Albertina
11. Picasso: A hen with chickens. Illustra-
tion to Buffon’s Natural History.
(Photo: Jeanne Gerard, Pans)
12. Picasso: A cockerel. Drawing in the
artist’s possession. (Photo: Jeanne
Gerard, Paris)
13. Gericault: Horse-racing at Epsom. Paris,
Louvre
14. The same subject, as the camera sees it.
Photo finish (Copyright Race Finish
Recording Co. Ltd.)
15. Caravaggio: St. Matthew. Berlin, Kaiscr-
Friedrich Museum
16. Caravaggio: St. Matthew. Rome, S.
Luigi dei Frances i
17. Raphael: The Virgin in the meadow.
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum
18. Raphael: Four studies for the Virgin in
the meadow. Vienna, Albertina
1: STRANGE BEGINNINGS
19. The Cave of Lascaux in France. (By per-
mission of M. Windels and Messrs.
Faber and Faber Ltd., London, pub-
lishers of English edition of Lascaux)
2 E*
20. Bison, rock-painting in the cave of Alta-
mira in Spain
21. Reindeer, rock-painting in the cave of
Font de Gaume in France
22. A ritual mask from Alaska. Berlin,
Museum fur Vblkerkunde
23. Carved lintel from a Maori chieftain’s
house. London, British Museum
24. Bronze head of a negro. Excavated in
Nigeria. London, British Museum
25. Oro, God of War, from Tahiti. London,
British Museum
26. A ritual mask from New Guinea, Elema
District. London, British Museum
27. A Haida chieftain’s house. (By permission
of the American Museum of Natural
History, New York)
28. Head of the death-god, from a Maya
altar. Copan, Honduras. After the cast
in the British Museum
29. The Aztec rain-god Tlaloc. Berlin,
Museum fur VOlkerkunde
30. Clay vessel in form of the head of a one-
eyed man. Excavated in the valley
of Chiama, Peru. London, British
Museum, Gaffron Collection
31. Australian native drawing on a rock.
Photograph. (By courtesy of C. P.
Mountford; St. Peter’s, Australia)
2: ART FOR ETERNITY
32. The Great Pyramid of Gizeh
33. Painting of a pond. From a tomb in
Thebes. London, British Museum
34. Portrait of Hesire, from a wooden door in
his tomb. Cairo, Museum
35. A wall from the tomb of Chnemhotep
near Beni Hassan
36. Birds in a bush. Detail of Fig. 35
37. Portrait head of limestone. Vienna, Kunst-
historisches Museum
38. Amenophis IV. Limestone relief. Berlin,
Museum
39. Tutankhamen and his wife, from the
throne found in his tomb. Cairo,
Museum
40. A dagger from Mycenae. Athens,
Museum. (Electrotype reconstruction)
41. Fragment of a harp, found in Ur. London,
British Museum
42. Monument of King Naram-sin, found in
Susa. Paris, Louvre
45-2 List of Illustrations and Acknowledgements
43. Assyrian army besieging a fortress. Ala-
baster relief. London, British Museum
44. An Egyptian craftsman at work on a
golden sphinx. Wall-painting from a
tomb in Thebes
3: THE GREAT AWAKENING
45. The Parthenon, Athens. (Photo: Mar-
burg)
46. The mourning of the dead. From a Greek
vase. London, British Museum
47. Statue of a youth. Delphi, Museum
48. Greek vase with Achilles and Ajax play-
ing draughts. Vatican, Museum
49. The warrior’s leavetaking. Vase-painting.
Munich, Antiquarium
50. Athena Parthenos. Roman copy after
Pheidias. Athens, National Museum
51. Hercules carrying the heavens, from the
Temple of Zeus. Olympia, Museum
52. Head of the bronze statue of a charioteer,
found in Delphi. Delphi, Museum
53. Discus thrower. Roman copy after
Myron. Munich, Glyptothck
54. Charioteers. Detail from the Parthenon
frieze. London, British Museum
55. Horsemen. Detail from the Parthenon
frieze. London, British Museum
56. Tombstone of Hegeso. Athens, National
Museum
57. Greek sculptor’s workshop. From a Greek
bowl. Berlin, Staatliches Museum
58. Maiden gathering flowers. Wall-painting
from Stabiae. Naples, National Mu-
seum. (Photo: Alinari)
59. Praxiteles: Head of Hermes. Detail of
Fig. 62
4: THE REALM OF BEAUTY
60. The Erechtheion. Athens, Acropolis
61. A goddess of victory. From the Temple of
Victory in Athens
62. Praxiteles : Hermes with young Dionysus.
Olympia, Museum
63. Apollo Belvedere. Vatican, Museum
64. The Venus of Milo. Paris, Louvre
65. Head of Alexander the Great. Probably
after Lysippus. Istambul, Museum
66. ‘Corinthian* capital. Found in Epi-
daurus. Epidaurus, Museum
67. The gods fighting the giants. From the
altar of Zeus in Pergamon. Berlin,
Staatliches Museum
68. Laocoon. Vatican, Museum
69. Head of a faun. Detail of a wall-painting
from Herculaneum. Naples, National
Museum
70. Landscape. Wall-painting. Rome, Villa
Albani
71. Greek sculptor at work. Hellenistic gem.
(By courtesy of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York)
5: WORLD CONQUERORS
72. The Colosseum in Rome
73. Interior of the Pantheon in Rome. Paint-
ing by G. P. Pannini. Private Collection
74. The Emperor Vcspasianus. Naples,
National Museum
75. Trajan’s column, Rome. (Detail)
76. Portrait of a man, found at Hawara
(Egypt). London, National Gallery
77. Head of Buddha, found in Gandhara.
(By permission of the Victoria and
Albert Museum, London)
78. Gautama (Buddha) leaving his home.
Relief found in Gandhara. Calcutta,
Indian Museum
79. Moses striking water from the rock.
Wall-painting from the Synagogue in
Dura-Europos. (By courtesy of Yale
University Art Gallery)
80. Christ with St. Peter and St. Paul. From
the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus.
Rome, Crypt of St. Peter
81. The Three Men in the Fiery Furnace.
Wall-painting from the Priscilla Cata-
comb, Rome
82. Portrait of an official from Aphrodisias.
Istambul, Museum
83. A painter of ‘funeral portraits’ in his
workshop. From a painted sarco-
phagus, found in the Crimea.
6: A PARTING OF WAYS
84. S. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna
85. Enthroned Madonna and Child. Byzan-
tine painting. (By courtesy of the Na-
tional Gallery of Art, Washington,
Mellon Collection)
86. Christ as Ruler of the Universe, the
Virgin and Child and Saints. Cathe-
dral of Monrealc, Sicily
87. The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes.
Mosaic from the Basilica of S. Apol-
1 inarc Nuovo, Ravenna
88. Byzantine Iconoclast, whitewashing an
image of Christ. From the Chludow
Psalter. Moscow, Historical Museum
7: LOOKING EASTWARDS
89. The Court of Lions in the Alhambra of
Granada, Spain
90. Humay and Humayun, from a Persian
manuscript. Paris, Musee des Arts
Ddcoratifs
List of Illustrations and Acknowledgements 453
91. A reception. Detail of a relief in the tomb
of Wu-liang-tse, Shantung, China
92. Winged lion, on the road to the tomj) of
Prince Hsiao Hsiu near Nanking
93. Persian silk prayer carpet. Coll. Mmc E.
Paravicini. (From A Survey of Persian
Art , Vol. vi, by permission of the
Oxford University Press)
94. Head of a Lohan, from a glazed tone
statue found in I-chou, China. For-
merly Frankfurt, Fuld Collection
95. Husband reproving his wife. Detail of a
silk scroll, probably an old copy after
Ku K’ai-chi. London, British Museum
96. Ma Yuan: Landscape in moonlight.
Painting on silk. Chinese Government
97. Kao K’o-kung: Landscape after rain.
Chinese Government
98. Fishes. Leaf from ah album. Probably
painted by Liu Ts’ai. Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania Museum of Art
99. A Japanese boy painting a branch of
bamboo. Coloured woodcut by Hide-
nobu. (By permission of the Victoria
and Albert Museum, London)
8: WESTERN ART IN THE
MELTING POT
100. The Church of Earls Barton, Northants,
England. (Copyright: National Build-
ings Record)
101. A dragon’s head. Wood carving found at
Oseberg, Norway. Oslo, University
Museum
102. A Tongship’ of the Viking type, from the
Bayeux Tapestry. Bayeux, Cathedral
103. Page of the Lindisfarne gospel. London,
British Museum
104. St. Luke. From a Gospel manuscript.
St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothck
105. Interior of the Minster of Aix-la-
Chapelle. (Photo: Marburg)
106. St. Matthew. From a Gospel manuscript.
Vienna, Schatzkammer
107. St. Matthew. From a Gospel manuscript.
fipemay. Municipal Library
108. Adam and Eve after the Fall. From the
bronze doors of the Hildesheim Cathe-
dral. (Photo: Marburg)
109-10. King Harold swears an oath to Duke
William of Normandy, after which he
returns to England. From the Bayeux
Tapestry. Bayeux, Cathedral. (By
permission of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London)
hi. A monk writing the letter R. From an
early thirteenth-century manuscript.
Sigmaringen, Library
9: THE CHURCH MILITANT
1 12. The Benedictine church of Murbach,
Alsace, France. (Photo: Marburg)
1 13. The Fish vomits out Jonah upon the dry
land. Detail of a stained-glass window.
Cologne, Cathedral
1 14. The cathedral of Tournai, Belgium
1 15. Durham Cathedral, England. (Photo:
Marburg)
1 16. Detail of Fig. 117 (Photo: Marburg)
1 17 The facade of St. Trophime in Arles,
southern France. (Photo: Marburg)
1 18. Candlestick of gilt bell metal. Made for
Gloucester Cathedral. (By permission
of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
London)
1 19. Brass font by Reiner van Huy. St.
Bartholomew, Liege, Belgium. (Photo:
A.C.L., Brussels)
120. The Annunciation. From a Swabian
Gospel manuscript. Stuttgart, Landes-
bibliothek
12 1. Saints Gcreon, Willimarus, Gall and
the Martyrdom of St. Ursula. From
a Calendar manuscript. Stuttgart,
Landesbibliothek
122. Artists at work. From the pattern book of
Rcun Monastery. Vienna, National-
bibliothek
10: THE CHURCH TRIUMPHANT
123. Notre Dame of Paris
124. Notre Dame of Paris from the air
125. Interior of the cathedral of Amiens.
(Photo : Marburg)
126. Cologne Cathedral, interior view. (Photo :
Marburg)
127. Melchisedek, Abraham and Moses. From
the northern transept of Chartres
Cathedral. (Photo: Marburg)
128. The death of the Virgin. From the
southern transept of Strasbourg
Cathedral. (Photo: Marburg)
129. Ekkehart and Uta. From the series of
‘ Founders * in the choir of Naumburg
Cathedral. (Photo: Marburg)
1 30. The Entombment. From a Psalter manu-
script from Bonmont. Besan^on, Biblio-
thfcque Municipale
13 1. Matthew Paris: An elephant and its
keeper. (By courtesy of the Master and
Fellows of Corpus Chnsti College,
Cambridge)
132. Nicola Pisano: Annunciation, Nativity
and Shepherds. From the marble
pulpit of the Baptistery in Pisa
133. Giotto: Faith. Wall-painting in the
Cappclla dell' Arena, Padua
134. Giotto: The mourning of Christ. Wall-
painting in the Cappella dell* Arena,
Padua
135. Detail of Fig. 134
454 Lht of Illustrations and Acknowledgements
136. King Offa and his architect watching the
building of St. Albans Cathedral.
From a manuscript at Trinity College,
Dublin
n: COURTIERS AND
BURGHERS
137. West front of Exeter Cathedral
138. The palace of the Doges of Venice
139. The Virgin. Silver statue. Paris, Louvre
140. Christ in the Temple; a hawking party.
Page from ‘Queen Mary’s Psalter*.
British Museum, London
141. Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi: The
Annunciation. Florence, Uffizi
142. Peter Parler the Younger: Self-portrait
in Prague Cathedral
143. The Wilton Diptych, London, National
Gallery
144. Paul and Jean de Limbourg: May. Page
of a Book of Hours. Chantilly,
Mus6e Cond6
145. Pisanello: Monkey. Leaf from a sketch-
book. Paris, Louvre
146. A sculptor at work. One of Andrea
Pisano’s reliefs on the Florentine
Campanile
12: THE CONQUEST OF
REALITY
147. Cappella Pazzi, Florence
148. Interior of the Cappella Pazzi
149. Masaccio: Wall-painting in Sta Maria
Novella, Florence
150. Donatello: St. George. Marble statue
from Or San Michele, Florence.
Florence, Bargello
15 1. Donatello: Herod’s Feast. Bronze relief.
Siena, S. Giovanni
152. Claus Sluter: The Prophets Daniel and
Isaiah. From the Moses Fountain, near
Dijon
153. Jan van Eyck: The Righteous Judges and
the Knights of Christ. Ghent, St.
Bavo
154. Jan van Eyck: The betrothal of the
Amolfini. London, National Gallery
155. Detail of Fig. 154
156. Conrad Witz: Christ walking on the
waves. (By courtesy of Mus6e d’Art
et d’Histoire, Geneva)
157. Stonemasons and sculptors at work.
From the base of a group by Nanni di
Banco. Florence, Or San Michele
13: TRADITION AND
INNOVATION: I
158. S. Andrea in Mantua
159. Palazzo Rucellai, Florence
160. Ghiberti: The Baptism of Christ. Siena,
S. Giovanni
161. Fra Angelico: The Annunciation. Flo-
rence, S. Marco
162. Uccello: The Rout of San Romano.
London, National Gallery
163. Benozzo Gozzoli: The journey of the
Magi to Bethlehem. Florence, Palazzo
Medici-Riccardi
164. Mantegna: St. James on the way to his
execution. Formerly in the Eremitani
Church, Padua
165. Francesco d’Antonio del Cherico: The
Annunciation, and scenes from Dante’s
Divine Comedy. Page from a liturgical
book. Rome, Vatican. (Photo: Alinan)
166. Piero della Francesca: Constantine’s
dream. Wall-painting. S. Francesco,
Arezzo
167. Antonio Pollaiuolo: The martyrdom of
St. Sebastian. London, National Gallery
168. Botticelli: The birth of Venus. Florence,
Uffizi
169. Detail of Fig. 168
170. Painters at work. Detail of a Florentine
print. London, British Museum
14: TRADITION AND
INNOVATION: II
171. The Court of the Palace of Justice (for-
merly Treasury), Rouen. (Photo:
Marburg)
172. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge. (By
courtesy of Country Life)
173. Tavernier: Dedication page to The Con-
quests of Charlemagne . Brussels,
Biblioth&que Royale
174. Fouquet: Estienne Chevalier, with St.
Stephen. Berlin, Kaiser-Friedrich Mu-
seum
175. Rogier van der Weyden: The Descent
from the Cross. Escorial
176. Hugo van der Goes: The Death of the
Virgin. Bruges, Museum
177. Veit Stoss: Altar of the Church of Our
Lady, Cracow
178. The good man on his death-bed. Wood-
cut from the Art of Dying Well , printed
in Ulm
179. Detail of Fig. 177
180. Stefan Lochner: The Virgin in the
rose-bower. Cologne, Wallraf-Richartz
Museum
List of Illustrations and Acknowledgements 455
18 1. Schongauer: Holy Night. Engraving
182. Stone-masons and the king. From an illu-
mination of the story of Troy, by Jean
Colombe. Berlin, Kupfcrstichkabinett
15: HARMONY ATTAINED
183. The Tempietto, Rome, S. Pietro in
Montorio
184. Verrocchio: Monument to Colleoni.
Venice
185. Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomical studies.
Windsor Castle, Royal Library
186. Leonardo da Vinci: The Last Supper.
Milan, Sta Maria dellc Grazie
187. Leonardo da Vinci: Mona Lisa. Paris,
Louvre
188. Ghirlandajo: The Birth of the Virgin.
Florence, Sta Maria Novella
189. Michelangelo: A section of the ceiling of
the Sistine Chapel, Vatican
190. Michelangelo: Study for one of the Sibyls
on the Sistine Ceiling. New York,
Metropolitan Museum of Art
191. Michelangelo: The Creation of Adam.
Detail of Fig. 189
192. Michelangelo: The dying slave. Paris,
Louvre
193. Pcrugino: The Virgin appearing to St.
Bernard. Munich, Alte Pinakothek
194. Raphael : Pope Leo X with two Cardinals.
Florence, Palazzo Pitti. (Copyright
Medici Society, London)
195. Detail of Fig. 197
196. Raphael: The Madonna del Granduca.
Florence, Palazzo Pitti
197. Raphael : Galatea. Rome, Villa Famesina
198. Members of Raphael’s workshop deco-
rating the Loggic. Stucco relief in the
Vatican Loggie
16: LIGHT AND COLOUR
199. The Library in Venice
200. Giorgione: The Tempest. Venice,
Accademia. (Photo: Alinari)
201. Giovanni Bellini: Madonna with Saints.
Venice, S. Zaccaria
202. Titian: Madonna with Saints and mem-
bers of the Pesaro family. Venice, Sta
Maria dei Frari
203. Detail of Fig. 202
204. Titian: Portrait of a man (so-called
‘Young Englishman’). Florence, Palazzo
Pitti
205. Detail of Fig. 204
206. Correggio: The Holy Night. Dresden,
Gallery
207. Correggio : St. John the Baptist. Study for
a wall-painting. Vienna, Albertina
208. An Orchestra of Venetian Painters;
Titian, Tintoretto, Jacopo Bassano and
Paolo Veronese. From the painting of
‘The Marriage at Cana* by Paolo
Veronese. Paris, Louvre
17: THE NEW LEARNING
SPREADS
209. The old Chancellery in Bruges (‘La
Greffe*). (Photo: Marburg)
210. The choir of St. Pierre in Caen. (Photo:
Marburg)
21 1. Durer: St. Michael’s fight against the
dragon. Woodcut
212. Durer: Piece of lawn. Water-colour
study. Vienna, Albertina
213. Durer: Adam and Eve. Engraving
214. Durer: The Nativity. Engraving
215. ‘Grunewald*: The Crucifixion. From
the Isenheim Altar. Colmar, Museum
216. ‘Grunewald’: The Resurrection. From
the Isenheim Altar. Colmar, Museum
217. Cranach: The Rest on the Flight to
Egypt. Berlin, Deutsches Museum
218. Altdorfer: Landscape. Munich, Alte
Pinakothek
219. ‘Mabuse’: St. Luke painting the Virgin.
Prague, Rudolphinum
220. Bosch: Hell. Right wing of a triptych.
Madrid, Prado
221. Detail of Fig. 220
222. The Painter studying the laws of fore-
shortening. Woodcut by Durer
18: A CRISIS OF ART
223. The Villa Rotonda near Vicenza. De-
signed by Palladio
224. A window from the Palazzo Zuccan m
Rome. Designed by F. Zuccari
225. Cellini: Salt Cellar. Vienna, Kunst-
historisches Museum
226. Parmigianino: The Madonna with the
long neck. Florence, Palazzo Pitti
227. Giovanni da Bologna: Mercury. Bronze
statue. Florence, Bargello
228. Tintoretto: The finding of St. Mark’s
remains. Milan, Brera
229. El Greco: The Opening of the Fifth Seal.
Formerly Zumaya, Zuloaga Collection
230. Holbein: Anne Cresacre. Drawing.
Windsor Castle
231. Holbein: Georg Gisze, a German mer-
chant in London. Berlin, Kaiser-Fried-
rich Museum
456 List of Illustrations and Acknowledgements
232. Holbein: The Virgin with the family of
Burgomaster Meyer. Darmstadt, Castle
233. Holbein: Thomas Howard, Duke of
Norfolk. Windsor Castle
234. Nicholas Hillyarde: Portrait miniature.
(By permission of the Victoria and
Albert Museum, London)
235. Pieter Brueghel the Elder: A country
wedding. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches
Museum
236. Detail of Fig. 235
237. Pieter Brueghel the Elder: The painter
and the buyer. Drawing. Vienna,
Albertina
238. Jean Goujon: Nymph. From the Fon-
taine des Innocents. Paris, Louvre
239. Callot: Two Italian clowns. Etching.
240. Taddeo Zuccari at work. Detail of a
drawing by F. Zuccari. Vienna, Alber-
tina
241. Tintoretto: St. George’s fight with the
dragon. London, National Gallery
242. El Greco: Portrait of Brother Hortensio
Felix Paravicino (By courtesy of the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
19: VISION AND VISIONS
243. II Gesu in Rome
244. Annibale Carracci: The Virgin mourning
Christ. Rome, Galleria Doria-Pam-
phili
245. Caravaggio: Doubting Thomas. Berlin,
Schldsser
246. Reni: The Dawn. Fresco on a ceiling
in the Palazzo Rospigliosi, Rome
247. Poussin: ‘Et in Arcadia ego*. Paris*
Louvre
248. Claude Lorrain: Landscape with the
rest on the flight to Egypt. Lenin-
grad, Hermitage. (Photo : Braun et Cie)
249. Rubens: The betrothal of St. Catherine.
Sketch for a large altar-painting.
Berlin, Kaiser-Friedrich Museum
250. Rubens: Head of a child. Vaduz, Liech-
tenstein Gallery
251. Rubens: Allegory on the blessings of
peace. London, National Gallery
252. Detail of Fig. 251
253. Rubens: Self-portrait. Vienna, Kunst-
historisches Museum
254. Vandyke: Lord John and Lord Bernard
Stuart. London, Lady Louis Mount-
batten
255. Vandyke: Charles I of England. Paris,
Louvre
256. Velazquez: The water-seller of Seville.
London, Duke of Wellington. (By
permission of the Victoria and Albert
Museum)
257. Velazquez: Prince Philip Prosper of
Spain. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Mu-
seum
258. An artists’ pub in seventeenth-century
Rome. Drawing by Pieter van Laar.
Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett
20: THE MIRROR OF
NATURE
259. The Castle (former Town Hall) of
Amsterdam. (Photo: Marburg)
260. Frans Hals: Pieter van der Broecke.
London, Kenwood, Ivcagh Bequest
261. Simon Vlieger: Mouth of a river. Lon-
don, National Gallery
262. Jan van Goycn: A windmill by a river.
London, National Gallery
263. Rembrandt : Self-portrait. Vienna, Kunst-
historisches Museum
264. Rembrandt : The parable of the merciless
servant. Pans, Louvre, Bonnat Be-
quest
265. Rembrandt: Jan Six. Amsterdam, Six
Collection
266. Rembrandt: Christ preaching. Etching
267. Jan Steen: The christening feast. From
the original in the Wallace Collection,
London, by permission
268. Jacob van Ruisdael: Wooded landscape.
Oxford, Worcester College. (By cour-
tesy of the College)
269. Rembrandt : The reconciliation of David
and Absalom. Leningrad, Hermitage
270. Vermeer van Delft: The cook. Amster-
dam, Rijksmuseum. (Copyright Medici
Society, London)
271. Willem Kalf: Still life. Berlin, Kaiser-
Friedrich Museum
272. The poor painter shivering in his garret.
Drawing by Pieter Bloot. London,
British Museum
21: POWER AND GLORY: I
273. Sta Agnesc in Piazza Navona, Rome
274. Interior of Sta Agnese in Piazza Navona,
Rome
275. Bernini: Portrait of Constanza Buona-
rclli. Florence, Bargcllo
276. Bernini: The Vision of St. Theresa.
Altar in Sta Maria della Vittoria, Rome
277. Detail of Fig. 276
278. Gaulli: The worship of the holy name
of Jesus. Ceiling of the Jesuit church
II Gesu in Rome
279. Giovanni Battista Tiepolo: Cleopatra’s
banquet. Fresco in the Palazzo Labia,
Venice
280. Guardi: View of S. Giorgio Maggiore in
Venice. From the original in the
Wallace Collection, London by per-
mission
List of Illustrations and Acknowledgements 457
281. ‘Connoisseurs* and antiquaries assem-
bled in Rome. Caricature by P. L.
Ghezzi. Vienna, Albertina
22: POWER AND GLORY: II
282. Versailles, garden front
283. Versailles from the air
284. The Belvedere in Vienna. (Photo : Austrian
National Library)
285. The entrance hall and staircase of the
Vienna Belvedere. After an eighteenth-
century engraving. (Photo : Schroll)
286. The staircase of Pommersfelden in Ger-
many
287. The monastery of Melk on the Danube.
(Photo: Marburg)
288. Interior of the church of Melk Monas-
tery. (Photo : Marburg)
289. Watteau : Fete in a park. From the origi-
nal in the Wallace Collection, London,
by permission
290. Art under royal patronage: Louis
XIV’s visit to the Royal Gobelin
Manufacture
23: THE AGE OF REASON
291. St. Paul’s Cathedral, London
292. Interior of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook.
(Copyright National Buildings Record)
293. Chiswick House, London. (Photo:
Kersting)
294. Hogarth: The rake in Bedlam. From ‘The
Rake’s Progress’. London, Sir John
Soane’s Museum
295. Reynolds: Miss Bowles with her dog.
From the original in the Wallace Col-
lection, London, by permission
296. Gainsborough: Miss Haverfield. From
the original in the Wallace Collection,
London, by permission
297. Gainsborough : Rural scene. Drawing. (By
permission of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London)
298. Chardin: Saying grace (Le B£ncdicite).
Paris, Louvre
299. Houdon: Portrait of Voltaire. (By permis-
sion of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
London)
300. Fragonard: The park of the Villa d’Este
in Tivoli. Drawing. Besangon, Museum
301. The Life School at the Royal Academy
with portraits of leading artists. Paint-
ing by Zoffany. Windsor Castle
24: THE BREAK IN
TRADITION
302. Strawberry Hill, Twickenham. (By
courtesy of Country Life)
303. Dorset House, Cheltenham. (Copyright
National Buildings Record)
304. John Soane: Design for a country house.
From ‘ Sketches in Architecture’. (By
permission of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London)
305. Monticello, Virginia. (Photo: Wayne
Andrews, New York)
306. Copley: Charles I demanding the sur-
render of the five impeached M.P.s. (By
courtesy of the Trustees of the Boston
Public Library)
307. David: Marat assassinated. Brussels,
Museum
308. Goya: King Ferdinand VII of Spain.
Madrid, Prado
309. Detail of Fig. 308
310. Goya: The giant. Etching
31 1. Blake: The ancient of days. Metal cut,
with water-colour. London, British
Museum
312. Constable: The haywain. London, Na-
tional Gallery
313. Constable: Dedham Mill. Oil sketch. (By
permission of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London)
314. Turner: Steamer in snowstorm. London,
Tate Gallery
315. Turner: The founding of Carthage.
London, National Gallery
316. Caspar David Friedrich: Landscape in
the Silesian Mountains. Munich,
Neuc Pinakothek
317. Charles X of France distributing decora-
tions in the Paris ‘Salon’ of 1824.
Painting by F. C. Heim. Paris, Louvre.
(Photo : Braun et Cic)
25: REVOLUTION IN
PERMANENCE
318. The Houses of Parliament, London.
(Copyright National Buildings Re-
cord)
319. Delacroix: Arabic fantasy. Montpellier,
Mus£c Fabry
320. Millet: The gleaners. Paris, Louvre
321. Courbet: ‘Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet’.
Montpellier, Museum
322. Rossetti: ‘Ecce Ancilla Domini’. London,
Tate Gallery
323. Manet: The balcony. Pans, Louvre
324. Manet: The races at Longchamp. Litho-
graph
325. Manet: Monet working in his boat.
Munich, Neue Pinakothek
326. Rodin: The sculptor Jules Dalou. Pans,
Rodin Museum
327. Monet: The Garc St. Lazare in Paris.
Paris, Louvre
328. Renoir: Dance at the ‘Moulin de la
Galette’. Paris, Louvre
458 List of Illustrations and Acknowledgements
329. Pissarro : The Boulevard Montmartre. (By
courtesy of the National Gallery of
Art, Washington)
330. Hokusai: The Fuji seen behind a
cistern. Woodcut in two colours from
the Hundred Views of the Fuji
331. Utamaro: Counting house, evening.
Coloured woodcut. (By permission of
the Victoria and Albert Museum,
London)
332. Degas. ‘Awaiting the cue*. Pastel. New
York, Private Collection
333. Degas: Uncle and niece. (By courtesy of
the Chicago Art Institute)
334. Whistler: ‘Arrangement in grey and
black’ (portrait of the artist’s mother).
Paris, Louvre
335. Whistler: Nocturne in blue and silver:
Old Battersea Bridge. London, Tate
Gallery
336. The rejected painter. Lithograph by
Daumier. (By courtesy of the Biblio-
thfcquc Nationale, Paris)
26: IN SEARCH OF NEW
STANDARDS
337 * 540 Fairoaks Avenue, Oakpark, Illinois
338. Cezanne: Rocky scenery near Aix.
London, Tate Gallery
339. Van Gogh: The sun rising behind Mont
Majours. Drawing. Winterthur, Oscar
Reinhart Collection
340. Cezanne: The Mont Sainte-Victoire seen
from Bellevue. Merion, U.S.A., Barnes
Foundation
341. Cezanne: Still life. Paris, R. Lecomte
342. Cezanne: Portrait of the artist’s wife.
Philadelphia, H. P. Macllhenny
343. Van Gogh: Landscape with cypresses
near Arles. London, Tate Gallery
344. Van Gogh: The artist’s room in Arles.
Kobe, Prince Matsugata
345. Gauguin: Two Tahitian women. Lon-
don, Home House Trustees
346. Van Gogh painting sunflowers. Painted
by Gauguin. Amsterdam, Municipal
Museum
27: EXPERIMENTAL ART
347. The Rockefeller Center, New York.
(Photo: Thomas Airviews, New York)
348. The Bauhaus, Dessau (Germany). De-
signed by Walter Gropius. (By cour-
tesy of the Museum of Modern Art,
New York)
349. Munch: ‘Shouting’. Lithograph. (Photo:
O. Voering)
350. Barlach: ‘Pity*. Sculpture in wood
351. Paul Klee: Mask. Water-colour. Berlin,
Uhlmann Collection
352. Picasso: Ceramic. (By permission of
French Copyright Ltd.)
353. Kokoschka: Children playing. Malmo,
Theodor Woelfers
354. Kandinsky: Composition. Berlin, Na-
tional Gallery
355. Hodler: Lake Thun. (By courtesy of the
Mus6e d’Art et d’Histoirc, Geneva)
356. Seurat: Bridge at Courbevoie. London,
Home House Trustees
357. Beardsley: Illustration to Oscar Wilde’s
‘Salome’
358. Toulouse-Lautrec: Poster. Lithograph in
colours. (Photo: Braun et Cie)
359. Matisse: ‘La Dcsserte’. Moscow, Mu-
seum of Western Art
360. Picasso : Still life.
361. Picasso: Head. Lithograph
362. Picasso: Head. New York, J. J. Sweeney
363. Giacometti: Head.
364. Feininger: Sailing boats. Detroit, R. H.
Tannahill
365. Henry Moore: Recumbent figure. Lon-
don, Tate Gallery
366. Rousseau: Portrait of Joseph Brunner.
Zurich, Dr. Franz Meyer Collection
367. Chagall : The musician. Laren (Holland),
P. A. Ragnoult
368. Grant Wood: Spring turning. Mrs. Elon
H. Hooker, New York
369. Dali: Apparition of face and fruit-dish
on a beach. (By courtesy of Wads-
worth Atheneum, Hartford, U.S.A.)
370. The painter and his model. Illustration
by Picasso to Balzac’s Le chef-d'oeuvre
inconnu . (Photo: Jeanne Gerard, Paris)
INDEX AND GLOSSARY
Technical terms which are explained in the text are printed in italics
A
Abstract arty 428, 437
Academies , 361-2
Academic art, 291, 294, 349,
356, 362, 382, 384, 385
Aesthetic movement, 402
Africa, 20, 25, 382, 431
Aisles , 92
Aix, 405, 41 1
Aix-la-Chapelle, 113, 115
Akhnaton, 42, 444
Alberti, 179-80
Alexander the Great, 72
Alexandria, 73
Allegories, 300-2, 362-3
Altdorfer, 261
Alva, Duke of, 280
Amenophis IV ( see Akhnaton)
America, 194, 357
American art, 28-32, 359, 363-
4, 400-2, 404, 421, 437, 441,
442, 443
Amsterdam, 310, 313
Angelico, Fra, 181-2, 197, 380
Anne of Bohemia, 157
Antiochia, 73
Antwerp, 256, 280, 296, 300
Aphrodisias, 89
Apollo Belvedere, 70-1
Apse , 92
Aquatinta , 366
Arabesque , IOI
Arch, 80-1, (round) 120,
(pointed) 132
Architrave , 50
Arles, 123-4
Art, 5, 19, 444-6
Art dealing, 312
Art nouveau, 404, 430
Artists, social position of, 55
64, 67-8, 76, 105, 148, 178,
208, 210-n, 215, 228-9, 240,
268, 274, 284, 300, 308, 31 1,
324, 342, 346, 349, 357, 376,
379-80, 435
training of, 141, 160, 179, 213,
221, 362, 385, 439
Aschaffenburg, 257
Asia Minor, 50, 73
Assyria, 45, 47
Asurnasirpal III, 47
Athenodoros, 75
Athens, 51, 55* 68, 359
Acropolis, 55, 68
Erechtheion, 67-8
Parthenon, 49, 57, 61-3, 69
Attic, 289
Augsburg, 274
Australia, 32
Austria, 260, 336
Austrian art, 336-40, 427
Avignon, 155
Aztec art, 30-2, 443
B
Babylon, 45
Barbizon, 382, 384
Barlach, 427
Baroque , 288
Baroque art, 287-308, 310, 311,
325-42, 343, 344, 345, 378
Barry, 378
Basilica , 92
Basle, 251, 274
Bassano, 248
Bauhaus {see Dessau)
Bayeux tapestry, 111, 116-18
Beardsley, 430
Beduzzi, 340
Belgium, 122, 125, 170, 309,
340 {see also Netherlands)
Belgian art {see Burgundian
art, and Flemish art)
Bellini, 256
Bembo, Cardinal, 236
Bernini, 327-9* 335
Berry, Duke of, 158
Blake, 366-9
Blenheim Palace, 345
Block-booksy 203
Bohemia, 155, 336
Bologna, 290, 293
Bologna, Giovanni {see
Boulogne)
Borgia, 215
Borromini, 325-6
Bosch, 262-4
Botticelli, 191-4, 208, 223
Boulogne, Jean de, 269-70, 283
Bramantc, 211-12, 222
Brueghel, 280-3
Bruges, Old Chancellery, 249
Brunelleschi, 162-5, 4 I0 > 4 20
Brussels, 280
Buddhist art, 86, 106
Burgundy, 157, 158, 168, 170,
185
Burgundian art, 158, 168-75,
197-8, 1 99-20 1
Buririy 204
Burke, 363-4
Burlington, Lord, 345, 346
Byzantium {see Constantinople)
Byzantine art, 97-8, 128, 143-
4, 272
c
Caen, S. Pierre, 250
Callot, 283-4
Capital , 68
Caravaggio, 12-13, 290-2, 296,
306, 318, 352, 358, 383
Caricature, 10, 423
Carracci, 290-2, 296, 349, 352,
35»
Carrara, 222
Catacombs, 89
Cathedraly 134
Cave paintings, 19, 21, 23
Cellini, 267-8, 283, 448
Cezanne, 405-12, 422, 432, 436,
448
Chagall, 440-1
Chambers, 359
Chardin, 353-4
Charlemagne, 1 13-14
Charles I of England, 300, 302-3
Charles V, Emperor, 240
Chartres Cathedral, 134, 136-7
Chaucer, 150, 152, 158
Cheltenham, 359
Chiaroscuro , 18
Chigi, 234
Chinese art, 101-8, 359
Chludow psalter, 98
Choir , 92
Christian art {see Early Chris-
tian art)
CxnquecentOy 209
Classical art, 49-85, 114, 138,
143, 161-3, 168, 180, 211-12,
221, 262, 266, 288, 289, 294,
365
Claude {see Lorrain)
Cnossos, 42
Colbert, 342
Coleridge, 442
Colmar, 207, 251
Cologne, 121, 135, 197
Composition , 130
Confucius, 102
Connoisseurs , 17, 334, 346, 348
Constable, 369-76, 382
Constantine, Emperor, 91
Constantinople, 97, 143
Copan, 29
Copley, 363-4
Corinthian order , 73
Correggio, 245-8, 290, 330
348, 427
Courbet, 383-5
Cracow, 201
Cranach, 260
Crete, 42, 49, 272
Crusades, 128, 150
Cubism } 418, 429-36
Czechoslovakia {see Bohemia)
460
D
Dali, 442-3
Dante, 155
Dark Ages, 109-10, 445
Daumier, 402
David, 364-5, 381
Decorated style , 150
Degas, 397-9
Delacroix, 381-2, 385 416, 448
Delphi, 59
Dessau, Bauhaus, 420-1, 437,
439
Dietzenhofer, 338
Dijon, 168
Disney, 9
Donatello, 165-8
Donor’s portraits, 157, 240,
243, 277
* Doodles ’, 25, 27, 434, 439
Doric order , 50, 359
Duccio, 154
Dura-Europos, 86
Diirer, 5, 251-7, 264, 447
Durham Cathedral, 123
Dutch art, 262-4, 309-24,411-
15 ( see also Netherlands)
Dyck ( see Vandyke)
E
Earls Barton, 109
Early Christian art, 88-96
Early English , 150
Eclectic , 291
Egyptian art, 33“45> 49, 85-6
‘Egyptian methods’, 36, 48, 52-
54, 58, 60, 63-4, 70, 78, 85,
96, 1 15, 128, 147, 386, 422,
432
El Amarna, 42
El Greco, 272-4
Empire , 361
England, 157, 277, 295, 302,
393, 401
English art, 109, m-13, 116-
20, 123, 125, 137, 141-2, 148,
150, 152, 157, 196, 279, 343-
53, 357-62, 366-75, 377-8,
384-5, 403-4, 430, 438-9
Engravings 204
Entablatures 50-1
Erasmus of Rotterdam, 277
Etchings 318
Eugene, Prince of Savoy, 337
Exeter Cathedral, 150
Exhibitions, 362, 376, 387
‘Expression*, 380
Expressionisms 423
Expressionist art, 418, 423-8
Eyck ( see Van Eyck)
F
Fan-vaults 196
FauveSs 431, 440
Feininger, 437
Fiesole, 181
Index and Glossary
Flamboyant styles 196
Flemish art, 261 280-3, 296-
305 {see also Burgundian art)
Florence, 144, 152, 154, 162-7,
179-82, 197, 210, 215, 222,
229, 290, 385
Or San Michele, 165
San Marco, 181
Pazzi Chapel, 163, 289
Medici Palace, 197
Rucellai Palace, 180
Flying Buttress , 132
Foreshortenings 53-4
Fouquet, 199
Fragonard, 356
France, 23, 215, 268, 269, 364,
381, 440-1
French art, 1 14-15, 120, 123-5,
131-7, 151-2, 196, 199, 250,
283-4, 294-5, 335-6, 340-2,
353-6, 361, 364-5, 38 i- 4,
385-400, 405-18, 429-36,
439-40
French Revolution, 364, 377,
381, 419
Frescos 144
Freud, 442
Friedrich, 375
Frieze , 61
Frith, 388
Froissart, 183
Functionalisms 42 1
G
Gainsborough, 17, 350-3, 373,
374
Gandhara, 84-6
Gauguin, 415-18, 422, 431,
439-40
Gaulli, 329-31
Geneva, 175
Genoa, 296, 302
Genres 280
Genre painting, 77, 152, 198-9,
280, 312, 319, 324, 354, 382,
393) 441
Geometric style , 50
George III of England, 364
G6ricault, 10-11
Germany, 155, 428, 437
German art, 113, 114, 116, 118,
1 19, 121, 128-30, 135, 137-41,
197, 201-8, 251-61, 274-8,
336, 338, 375-6, 420-1, 427
Ghent, 170
Ghezzi, 334
Ghiberti, 180-1
Ghirlandajo, 220-1, 223
Giacometti, 436
Giorgione, 239-41
Giotto, 144-8, 152-4, 155, 161,
162
Gizeh, 33
Gloucester, 125
Goes, Hugo van der, 201
Gogh {see Van Gogh)
Gossaert {see Mabuse)
Gothic, 162, 288
Gothic art, 131-60, 170, 175,
180, 183, 192, 195-208, 250
Gothic revival, 358-9, 361 378
Goths, no, 162
Goujon, 283
Goya, 365-8
Goyen, 312-13
Gozzoli, 184-6, 197
Granada, 99
Greco, 272-4
Greece, 42
Greek art, 49-78 {see also
Classical art and Byzantine
art)
Greek revival, 359-61
Gregory the Great, 92
Gropius, 420
Griinewald, 257-9
Guardi, 333-4
Gutenberg, 204
H
Haarlem, 310, 320
Hagesandros, 75
Haida, 28-9
Hals, 310-n, 388
Havre, Le, 391
Hegeso, 64
Hellenistic art, 73-8, 144
Henry III of England, 142
Henry VIII of England, 277
Herculaneum, 76
Hertogenbosch, 262
Hidenobu, 108
Hildebrandt, 337-8
Hildesheim, 116
Hillyarde, 279
History painting, 349, 363
Hodler, 430
Hogarth, 346-8, 361
Hokusai, 396-7
Holbein, 274-9
Holland, 274, 309, 41 1, 437
{see also Dutch art and
Netherlands)
Homer, 50
Honduras, 29
Hooch de, 6
Houdon, 354“5
Hungary, 251
I
Ice Age, 23
Icons , 98
I conoclasts , 97-8
Idealizing, 70, 235-6, 294, 384,
427
Iktinus, 55
Images, ban on, 92, 97, 99-101,
274
Impressionisms 391
Impressionist art, 389-402,
404-6, 413, 417, 422
Incas, 30
India, 84, 86
Industrial Revolution, 377, 403
International style, 157-8, 165,
170
Ionic order , 68
Ireland, in, 113
Islamic art, 99-101
Italy, 199, 208, 250, 256, 294-6,
306, 308
Italian art, 142-8, 152-5, 160-8,
x 77 — 94> 209-48, 265-72,
287-94, 3i8, 325-34, 339,
346, 348, 384
J
Japanese art, 108, 396-7, 412,
416, 430
Jefferson, 359
Jeremiah, 55
Jesuits, 288
Jewish art, 86-8
Joan of Evreux, 15 1
Johnson, Dr., 353
Julius II, Pope, 2 1 1, 222, 227,
233
Junius Bassus, 88
K
Kalf, 323
Kandinsky, 428, 437
Kao K’o-kung, 107
Kent, 345-6
Klee, 439, 442, 448
Kokoschka, 427-8
Ku K’ai-chi, 102
L
Landscape painting, 77, 106-8,
176, 261, 295, 313, 320, 352-
3, 369-76, 392, 409, 4M, 430,
441
Laocoon, 73
Lascaux, 19
Leonardo da Vinci, 212-20,
230, 265, 266, 447
Levau, 335
Leyden, 313
Li6ge, 125, 127
Limbourg brothers, 158, 170
Lindisfarne Gospel, m-12
Lippo Memmi, 154
Liu Ts’ai, 107
Lochner, 197
London, 343“4, 359, 362, 393,
401
Chiswick House, 345
Kew Gardens, 359
Parliament, Houses of, 377-8
St. Paul’s, 344
Lorrain, 295, 346, 373
Louis, St., 141
Louis, XIII, 300
Louis XIV, 335, 342
Luther, 212, 251, 261
Luxembourg, 155
Lysippus, 72
Index and Glossary
M
Mabuse, 261-2
Madrid, 306
Magic, 20-8, 32, 34-5, 47-8,
81, 101, 157, 220, 438
Mahommed, 10 1
Malone, 363
Manet, 385-9, 39L 396
Af annerism, 266, 288
Mannerist art, 265-74, 279,
283-4, 290
Mantegna, 185-6, 208, 251
Mantua, 177, 185, 296
Maoris, 24-5
Marlborough, 345
Masaccio, 164-5, 380
Matisse, 431-2
Maximilian, Emperor, 256
Mayas, 30
Ma Yuan, 106
Medici, 184, 194, 300
Melk, 339-40
Melozzo da Forli, 6
Memling, 6
Mesopotamia, 45-7, 55, 86, 101
Metope , 51
Mexico, 30
Michelangelo, 220-9, 230, 265-
6, 348, 436
Middle Ages , 162
Milan, 215, 216
Millet, 382-3, 41 1
Mirabeau, 364
Modern art, 9, 10, 272, 292
419-45
Mogul, 10 1
Monet, 391-3
Montfort, Simon of, 139
Moore, Henry, 438-9
Morris, William, 403-4, 448
Munch, Edvard, 423-4
N
Napoleon, 361
National Socialists, 420, 427, 441
Naturalism , 292
Naumburg Cathedral, 139
Nave , 92
Neo-classical , 234 {see also
Greek revival)
Neo-Gothic {see Gothic revival)
Netherlands, 170, 173, 1 97-201,
256, 261-4, 279-83, 296, 309
{see also Dutch art, Flemish
art)
New Guinea, 27
New Zealand, 24
Nigeria, 25, 26, 30, 34
Nithardt {see Griinewald)
Norman style , 120
Normans, 116-19
Northumbria, ill
Norwegian art, 423-4
Nuremberg, 201, 251
o
Oil-painting , 172
Olympia, 57-9
* Orders’, 80
461
p
Padua, 144-6, 185
Palestine, 45
Palladio, 265-7, 345, 358
Paris, 134, 142, 151, 335, 340,
362, 381, 431, 432, 437, 440
Notre Dame, 133-4
Paris, Matthew, 14 1-2, 148
Parler, 155-6
Parma, 245, 247
Parmigianino, 268-9
Pergamon, 73
Pericles, 55
Perpendicular style , 196
Persian art, 10 1
Perspective, 78, 163-5, 183,
264, 410
Peru, 30-1
Perugino, 229-30
Petrarch, 155
Pheidias, 55-7
Philip II of Spain, 263
Philip III of Spain, 300
Philip IV of Spain, 306
Photography, 10, 395-6
Picasso, 9-10, 426, 432-5, 439,
446
Picturesque , 313, 392
Piero della Francesca, 188-90
Pilaster , 163
Pisa, 143
Pisano Nicola, 143
Pisanello, 160
Pissarro, 394-5, 448
Plein-air , 388
Pointillisme , 41 3
Poland, 201
Pollaiuolo, 1 90-1
Polydoros, 75
Polynesia, 25
Pommersfelden, 338
Pompeii, 77-9
Pope, 346
Porta, 289
Portraiture, 34, 60, 71-2, 81-2,
86, 90, 141, 155, 157, 173,
218, 220, 279, 305, 310-11,
3 r 5> 346, 349-52, 354, 365,
399, 427, 436
Posters, 5, 421, 430
Post-Impressionism, 430
Poussin, 294-5, 381, 405
Prague, 155-6
Prandtauer, 339
Praxiteles, 69-71
Pre-Raphaelite painting, 197,
384-5, 401, 416
Primtive art, 20-32, 421-2,
432, 440 {see also ’Egyptian
methods ’)
Primitivist art, 416, 418, 439-41
Printing, 203
Protestantism, 274, 300, 309-
10, 31 1, 343, 344, 346
Pugin, 378
Q
Quattrocento , 209
462
R
Rainaldi, 325
Raphael, 15-16, 229-36, 254,
265, 290, 293, 348, 381, 384*
427
Ratisbon, 261
Ravenna, 91, 113
Realism , 383-4
Red Indians, 28-9
Reformation, 212, 251, 274,
277a 279a 288, 326
Regency style, 359
Rembrandt, 8-9, 18, 313-19,
380
Renaissance , 160-1, 287
High, 210, 212
Renaissance art, 160-8, 177-94,
209-83
Reni, 6-7, 293-4, 358
Renoir, 393-4
Reynolds, 17, 348-53, 358,
361, 373, 448
Ribs , 123, 132
Richard II, 157
Robespierre, 364
Robusti {see Tintoretto)
Rococo, 341, 353, 359
Rodin, 399-400
Rogier van der Weyden, 199-200
Roman art, 79-85 {see also
Classical art)
Romanesque , 120
Romanesque art, 119-30
Romantic movement, 364, 369,
373a 375a 381-2, 442
Rome, 12, 79-80, 89, 162, 199,
215, 222, 233, 288-9, 290-2,
293, 294, 295, 296, 306, 325,
329
Colosseum, 79, 180
Farnesina, 234-5
Gesu, 287-9
Pantheon, 80-1, 212, 236
Priscilla Catacomb, 88
Sistine Chapel, 223-7
St. Peter’s, 212
Sta Agnese, 325-7
Sta Maria della Vittoria, 329
Trajan’s column, 82
Rossetti, 384-5
Rouen, 196
Rousseau, 440
Rubens, 5, 296-303, 306, 341
Rufillus, 1 18
Ruisdael, 320, 323
Ruskin, 197, 401-2, 403-4,448
Russia, 98, 428, 440, 441
Russian icons, 98
Index and Glossary
S
Salon, 387, 391, 400
Sansovino, 237-8
Santi {see Raphael)
Saxony, 261
Saxon period, 119
Schongauer, 207-8, 251
Schools of art , 68, 179
Schubert, 375
Seurat, 430
Sfumato , 219, 394
Shakespeare, 215, 279, 280,
363
Side-aisles , 92
Sidney, 279
Siena, 154-5, 167
Simone Martini, 154-5
Sixdeniers, 249
Sixtus IV, 223
Sluter, 168-70
Soane, 359
Sohier, 250
Solomon, 127
Spain, 23, 101, 137, 272, 300,
305 5 33L 336, 432, 442
Spanish art, 272-4, 305-8, 365-
8, 432, 442
Spartans, 50
Steen, 319-20
Still Life painting, 77, 323, 409
Stoss, Veit, 201-3, 205
Strasbourg, 137-8
Stuart court, 343
Sumeria, 45-7
Sunday painters, 441
Surrealism , 441-3
Susa, 46
Switzerland, 251, 274
Swiss art, 175, 430, 436, 439
T
Tahiti, 26, 416-17
Tavernier, 198
Tempera , 172
Teutonic tribes, 110-11
Theocritus, 77
Theotocopoulos {see El Greco)
Tiepolo, 331-3
Tintoretto, 270-2
Titian, 240-5, 248, 265, 270,
306, 348
Toledo, 272
Totem , 23, 29
Toulouse-Lautrec, 430
Toumai Cathedral, 122
Tracery , 133
Trajan, 82, 85
Transept , 120
Triglyph , 51
Tunnel vault , 123
Turner, 369, 372-5* T93
Tuscan master, 7
Tutankhamen, 42
Twickenham, Strawberry Hill,
358
u
Uccello, 182-4
Ur, 45
Urbino, 229
Utamaro, 396-7
V
Vandyke, 302-5, 352
Van Eyck, 170-5
Van Gogh, 411-15, 418, 422-3
Vaulting, 81, 123, 132, 162, 196
Vasari, 272, 448
Velazquez, 306-8, 388
Venice, 143, 151, 212, 237-45,
256, 270-2, 290, 331-4
Library, 237
Vermeer, 322-4, 380
Veronese, 248
Versailles, 335-6
Vienna Belvedere, 337-8
Vikings, 110-11
Vlieger, 312, 333
w
Wallot, 249
Walpole, 358
Washington, 359
Watteau, 340-2
Whistler, 400-2, 430, 435, 448
Wilton diptych, 157-8
Witz, 175-6
Woodcut , 203
Wright, 404, 448
z
Zoffany, 356
Zuccari, 266, 284